同义密码子用语与蛋白质二级结构信息

对人体117个蛋白质和大肠杆菌的185个蛋白质的各二级结构相对应的mRNA序列中的同义密码子与氨基酸上下文关联熵、蛋白质序列中氨基酸与氨基酸上下文关联熵作了统计分析，发现密码子关联确实比氨基酸关联对蛋白质二级结构提供的信息量大，而且人蛋白质中同义密码子提供的二级结构信息比大肠杆菌中多．同时，证明了在相对信息剩余大于等于30％的情况下，Adzhubei给出的九种氨基酸中的八种其同义密码子在某些二级结构中明显的携带结构信息；此外A，N，D，R，H，C，Y这几种氨基酸的同义密码子在某些二级结构中也明显地携带结构信息．     

蛋白质中氨基酸间的相关性研究

计算和分析了4种类型(α型、β型、α／β型和α β型)共计204个蛋白质中的20种氨基酸间的相关性．研究发现，氨基酸之间的相关性可分为强正相关、强负相关、弱相关和不相关．作为蛋白质的建筑构件，20种氨基酸在不同类型的蛋白质中的相关性反映了这些建筑构件间的匹配规则，代表了蛋白质的结构特征．本文分析了部分氨基酸间的相关性与蛋白质结构间的联系，从物理和化学性质上解释了氨基酸相关性的起源。     

不同折叠类型蛋白中基于密码子的二级结构偏向性分析

在传统的Chou-Fasman蛋白质二级结构预测方法的基础上引入同义密码子使用的信息,计算了200个蛋白(49种全α结构蛋白,69种全β结构蛋白,38种仅α β结构蛋白,44种α/β结构蛋白)中不同密码子对应的氨基酸形成不同二级结构(α：螺旋,β：折叠,C：卷曲)的偏向性参数．通过对这些密码子对应氨基酸二级结构偏向性的分析,得到了氨基酸二级结构偏向性分析中所忽略的同义密码子的蛋白结构信息．这些新的信息量对于指导蛋白质设计以及提高蛋白质二级结构预测的准确率有着一定的作用．     

用AUG的三联数字推导氨基酸的遗传密码

遗传密码是三个碱基组成不重叠的三联密码子,并且一个三联密码子决定一种氨基酸。现已知道组成蛋白质的氨基酸只有20种,而由四种碱基组成的三联密码子有64种之多。本文用起始密码子AUG的三联数字来推导20种氨基酸一一对应的遗传密码。     

蛋白质二级结构中同义密码子与氨基酸上下文关联的偏好型

通过对人(Homo sapiens)的117个蛋白质和大肠杆菌(E．coli)的87个蛋白质的统计分析，发现mRNA序列中的同义密码子与氨基酸的上下文关联是和蛋白质二级结构有关的，并给出了各二级结构中有意义的上下文关联型．讨论了该结果对蛋白质结构预测的改进意义及其在基因工程领域可能的应用。     

蛋白质二级结构中对应的密码子关联的进一步讨论

从概率论的角度出发,以人和大肠杆菌蛋白质为模式,研究了蛋白质二级结构中有显著统计意义的mRNA序列上的密码子上下文关联,以及蛋白质序列上的氨基酸上下文关联.从而给出了99%置信水平上的各二级结构中的反常密码子上下文关联偏好型.为了进一步检查反常密码子关联对二级结构的影响是否有位点保守性,研究了密码子上下文关联以及氨基酸上下文关联与二级结构位点的关系,结果显示反常密码子关联与二级结构位点没有强关联.所得结果可以给出哪些密码子的上下文关联对蛋白质二级结构有影响,且对改进蛋白质二级结构的预测有一定的参考价值.     

tRNA丰度是影响蛋白质二级结构形成的一个因素

从人和大肠杆菌蛋白质和DNA序列的统计分析，发现mRNA的对应一定蛋白质二级结构的m密码子片段(m=3，4，…，8)，当平均tRNA拷贝数高时(对于人高于11，对于大肠杆菌高于2．O)，偏好编码螺旋，而避免编码线团；当平均tRNA拷贝数低时，偏好性正好反过来．对于beta折叠，未发现和tRNA拷贝数有明显的统计关联．对大肠杆菌也研究了密码子频数与蛋白质二级结构的相关性，其间的关联比tRNA拷贝数与蛋白质二级结构的关联弱．因此，tRNA拷贝数与蛋白质二级结构的关联可能更为本质．机制目前尚不清楚．一种可能的解释是：tRNA丰度以某种方式影响了新生肽链的折叠，通过翻译精度的因素影响了蛋白质二级结构的形成．     

癌基因中的密码子使用

对１９９３年Ｅｎｔｒｅｚ８．０基因库中的癌基因的密码子使用进行了统计分析，给出了家族的归１０００的密码子使用频率，同义密码子使用频率，氨基酸相对丰度，并与非癌普通基因ＰＲＩ（灵长类）进行了比较，结果表明，癌基因与非癌基因对密码子的使用不同，在氨基酸丰度上有差异；各个家族的癌基因对密码子的使用及氨基酸的相对丰度都人特殊性。     

冠状病毒同义密码子使用对mRNA二级结构的影响

从NCBI中获得了45种冠状病毒的mRNA序列总计416条.分别计算了每条编码序列中相对同义密码子使用度(RSCU),然后预测每条mRNA序列的RNA二级结构,计算相应mRNA茎结构含量、环结构含量、单位平均折叠自由能以及mRNA柔性.由此,建立了冠状病毒mRNA二级结构数据库.在此基础上,分析每条mRNA序列同义密码子使用度与mRNA二级结构之间的相关性.分析结果表明,有90%的氨基酸所对应的密码子使用度与mRNA茎结构含量显著相关;有75%的氨基酸所对应的密码子使用度与mRNA环结构含量显著相关;有90%的氨基酸所对应的密码子使用度与单位平均折叠自由能显著相关;有85%的氨基酸所对应的密码子使用度与mRNA柔性显著相关.进一步分析发现,同时与茎结构含量和环结构含量都显著相关的密码子,它们的使用度与两种结构含量的相关性截然相反,在所选的参量中,柔性与同义密码子使用度显示出更好的相关性.结果证实,冠状病毒同义密码子的使用对mRNA二级结构存在很大的影响.     

氨基酸衍生物的电化学研究及碱性氨基酸的极谱测定

本文研究了多种氨基酸与水杨醛在碱性介质中的衍生化及其产物（席夫碱）的电化学行为。结果表明：席夫碱的生成和氨基酸的测定灵敏度受氨基酸的性质影响很大，碱性氨基酸能形成很好的极谐波，检测限低于１×１０－６ｍｏｌ／Ｌ，用此法测定了食品中的赖氨酸含量和血清中蛋白质总量，得到较满意的结果．     

Converting nonsense codons into sense codons by targeted pseudouridylation

All three translation termination codons, or nonsense codons, contain a uridine residue at the first position of the codon. Here, we demonstrate that pseudouridylation (conversion of uridine into pseudouridine (Ψ), ref. 4) of nonsense codons suppresses translation termination both in vitro and in vivo. In vivo targeting of nonsense codons is accomplished by the expression of an H/ACA RNA capable of directing the isomerization of uridine to Ψ within the nonsense codon. Thus, targeted pseudouridylation represents a novel approach for promoting nonsense suppression in vivo. Remarkably, we also show that pseudouridylated nonsense codons code for amino acids with similar properties. Specifically, ΨAA and ΨAG code for serine and threonine, whereas ΨGA codes for tyrosine and phenylalanine, thus suggesting a new mode of decoding. Our results also suggest that RNA modification, as a naturally occurring mechanism, may offer a new way to expand the genetic code.     

无义密码对线粒体密码进化的影响

遗传密码的起源与进化是理论生物学研究的一个基本问题.以线粒体密码为例,讨论密码进化关系构建的不同规则,分析密码进化中重要影响因素——无义密码子的再定义及其逆过程.终止信号与氨基酸间的距离是密码进化关系构建中的关键,在密码进化中无义密码子突变可以频繁进行,存在干涉现象,且进化倾向于无义密码子减少的方向.     

The codon CUG is read as serine in an asporogenic yeast Candida cylindracea

Deviations from the universal genetic code have been reported for several microorganisms. Termination codons are used for coding some amino acids in Paramecium, Mycoplasma or Tetrahymena, and in Escherichia coli, the UGA termination codon is used to code for selenocysteine. In mitochondria, the changes of sense codons to termination codons or to codons encoding other amino acids have also been reported. Here we report another example of divergence from the universal code, this time in a non-spore-forming yeast Candida cylindracea, in which the universal codon for leucine, CUG, is used to code for serine. This conclusion is based on the observations that: (1) the amino-acid composition and the partial amino-acid sequences of an extracellular lipase from this yeast agreed with those deduced from the complementary DNA if CUG was assumed to specify serine; and (2) serine, but not leucine, was incorporated into a polypeptide in a cell-free translation system from this yeast in the presence of a synthetic CUG oligomer.     

模糊极值与遗传密码的亲水—疏水性和突变危险性

提出了两遗传密切之间距离的一个定义，以该定义为基础构造了密切字典的突变危险度函数；应用模糊极值方法求出了使突变危险度极小的标准密码表的疏水－亲水畴分布；证实由局域极小化的简并多重态构成的标准密码字典和大部分线粒体密码字典的突变危险度是近似极小的，若以密切字典系统平均突变危险度和最大突变危险度为标度，现有的各种与极小值的接近程度在90％左右；计算结果还支持这样的假设：密码的进化是遵循整体突变危险性极小的，标准密码表可能是由类似于线料 密码的古典密码表进行化来的，而碱基的化学修饰有助于降低突变危险性。     

Ribosome-mediated incorporation of a non-standard amino acid into a peptide through expansion of the genetic code.

One serious limitation facing protein engineers is the availability of only 20 'proteinogenic' amino acids encoded by natural messenger RNA. The lack of structural diversity among these amino acids restricts the mechanistic and structural issues that can be addressed by site-directed mutagenesis. Here we describe a new technology for incorporating non-standard amino acids into polypeptides by ribosome-based translation. In this technology, the genetic code is expanded through the creation of a 65th codon-anticodon pair from unnatural nucleoside bases having non-standard hydrogen-bonding patterns. This new codon-anticodon pair efficiently supports translation in vitro to yield peptides containing a non-standard amino acid. The versatility of the ribosome as a synthetic tool offers new possibilities for protein engineering, and compares favourably with another recently described approach in which the genetic code is simply rearranged to recruit stop codons to play a coding role.     

A universal trend of amino acid gain and loss in protein evolution

Amino acid composition of proteins varies substantially between taxa and, thus, can evolve. For example, proteins from organisms with (G + C)-rich (or (A + T)-rich) genomes contain more (or fewer) amino acids encoded by (G + C)-rich codons. However, no universal trends in ongoing changes of amino acid frequencies have been reported. We compared sets of orthologous proteins encoded by triplets of closely related genomes from 15 taxa representing all three domains of life (Bacteria, Archaea and Eukaryota), and used phylogenies to polarize amino acid substitutions. Cys, Met, His, Ser and Phe accrue in at least 14 taxa, whereas Pro, Ala, Glu and Gly are consistently lost. The same nine amino acids are currently accrued or lost in human proteins, as shown by analysis of non-synonymous single-nucleotide polymorphisms. All amino acids with declining frequencies are thought to be among the first incorporated into the genetic code; conversely, all amino acids with increasing frequencies, except Ser, were probably recruited late. Thus, expansion of initially under-represented amino acids, which began over 3,400 million years ago, apparently continues to this day.     

A tripeptide 'anticodon' deciphers stop codons in messenger RNA

The two translational release factors of prokaryotes, RF1 and RF2, catalyse the termination of polypeptide synthesis at UAG/UAA and UGA/UAA stop codons, respectively. However, how these polypeptide release factors read both non-identical and identical stop codons is puzzling. Here we describe the basis of this recognition. Swaps of each of the conserved domains between RF1 and RF2 in an RF1-RF2 hybrid led to the identification of a domain that could switch recognition specificity. A genetic selection among clones encoding random variants of this domain showed that the tripeptides Pro-Ala-Thr and Ser-Pro-Phe determine release-factor specificity in vivo in RF1 and RF2, respectively. An in vitro release study of tripeptide variants indicated that the first and third amino acids independently discriminate the second and third purine bases, respectively. Analysis with stop codons containing base analogues indicated that the C2 amino group of purine may be the primary target of discrimination of G from A. These findings show that the discriminator tripeptide of bacterial release factors is functionally equivalent to that of the anticodon of transfer RNA, irrespective of the difference between protein and RNA.     

同义密码子的频率分布

本文提出了关于同义密码子非无规分布的一个机制,从主方程出发,如果只考虑同义突变由图论方法证明了密码子的均匀分布,但是如果考虑了不同氮基酸间的突变,便可导出同义密码子的非无规分布。后者反映了选择约束对密码子分布的影响。     

贵州栽培大麦不同种植环境籽粒多组分营养物质质量分数分析

为了发掘可改良贵州栽培大麦营养物质质量分数的基因资源,以67份贵州地方栽培大麦为研究材料,分别种植于安徽省来安县汪庄、安徽省来安县广大圩和四川省崇州市羊马镇3个环境中,采用紫外分光光度法测定该群体籽粒总类黄酮、总酚、植酸、无机磷、氨基酸和可溶性蛋白质6个营养性状质量分数.结果发现:不同种植环境对大麦籽粒营养成分质量分数影响程度不同.网络相关性分析表明,大麦籽粒营养性状之间均呈正相关性,安徽环境条件下总酚仅与黄酮、可溶性蛋白质有显著相关性,四川环境条件下各营养成分间相关性复杂.因此,大麦总酚与其他指标间的相关性可能受环境因素影响较大,可为改良贵州栽培大麦提供一定的理论依据.