Differential inhibition of neurone-neurone, neurone-astrocyte and astrocyte-astrocyte adhesion by L1, L2 and N-CAM antibodies

The cell adhesion molecules L1, N-CAM and Ng-CAM have been implicated in cell-cell interactions among developing neural cells. L1 and N-CAM are structurally and functionally distinct molecular entities and act synergistically in mediating Ca2+-independent adhesion between re-aggregating early postnatal cerebellar cells. N-CAM has been reported to be neurone-specific in the chicken and to mediate fasciculation of neurites and of nerve-muscle interactions. L1, which in the central nervous system has been found only on post-mitotic neurones, mediates migration of granule cell neurones in the mouse cerebellar cortex. In view of the molecules' distinct effects on cell interactions, we wondered whether different neural cell types are involved in the actions of each molecule. Here we report that L1 antigen promotes neurone-neurone adhesion. N-CAM, which is expressed on both neurones and glia, mediates neurone-neurone, neurone-astrocyte and astrocyte-astrocyte adhesion. The L2 carbohydrate epitope shared between the two adhesion molecules seems to be involved in neurone-astrocyte and astrocyte-astrocyte adhesion and acts in a more than additive manner in N-CAM-mediated neurone-neurone adhesion.     

Retinoic acid causes an anteroposterior transformation in the developing central nervous system

All-trans retinoic acid (RA) is well known as a biologically active form of vitamin A and a teratogen. The identification of nuclear receptors for this ligand suggests strongly that it is an endogenous signal molecule, and measurements of RA and teratogenic manipulations suggest further that RA is a morphogen specifying the anteroposterior axis during limb development. Besides the limb, RA and other retinoids affect development of other organs, including the central nervous system (CNS). None of these other effects has been investigated in detail. Our purpose here was to begin analysing the effects of RA on CNS development in Xenopus laevis. We find that RA acts on the developing CNS, transforming anterior neural tissue to a posterior neural specification. These and other findings raise the possibility that RA mediates an inductive interaction regulating anteroposterior differentiation within the CNS. Following recent reports implicating transforming growth factor-beta 2-like and fibroblast growth factor-like factors in mesoderm induction, this indicates that a different type of signal molecule (working through a nuclear receptor, not a plasma membrane receptor) might mediate inductive cell interactions during early embryonic development.     

Neuronal cell-cell adhesion depends on interactions of N-CAM with heparin-like molecules

Cell-cell interactions are of critical importance during neural development, particularly since the migration of neural cells and the establishment of functional interactions between growing axons and their target cells has been suggested to depend upon cell recognition processes. Neurone-neurone adhesion has been well studied in vitro, and is mediated in part by the neural cell adhesion molecule N-CAM. N-CAM-mediated cell-cell adhesion has been postulated to occur by a homophilic binding mechanism, in which N-CAM on the surface of one cell binds to N-CAM on a neighbouring cell. Studies in our laboratory have identified a cell surface glycoprotein, now known to be N-CAM, which participates in cell-substratum interactions in the developing chicken nervous system. Although this adhesion involves a homophilic binding mechanism, the binding of the cell surface proteoglycan heparan sulphate to the glycoprotein is also required. This raises the question of whether the binding of heparan sulphate to N-CAM is also required for cell-cell adhesion. Here we show that the binding of retinal probe cells to retinal cell monolayers is inhibited by heparin, a functional analogue of heparan sulphate, but not by chondroitin sulphate. Monoclonal antibodies that recognize two different domains on N-CAM, the homophilic-binding and heparin-binding domains, inhibit cell-cell adhesion. The heparin-binding domain isolated from N-CAM by selective proteolysis also inhibits cell-cell adhesion when bound to the probe cells.     

Structural basis for vinculin activation at sites of cell adhesion

Vinculin is a highly conserved intracellular protein with a crucial role in the maintenance and regulation of cell adhesion and migration. In the cytosol, vinculin adopts a default autoinhibited conformation. On recruitment to cell-cell and cell-matrix adherens-type junctions, vinculin becomes activated and mediates various protein-protein interactions that regulate the links between F-actin and the cadherin and integrin families of cell-adhesion molecules. Here we describe the crystal structure of the full-length vinculin molecule (1,066 amino acids), which shows a five-domain autoinhibited conformation in which the carboxy-terminal tail domain is held pincer-like by the vinculin head, and ligand binding is regulated both sterically and allosterically. We show that conformational changes in the head, tail and proline-rich domains are linked structurally and thermodynamically, and propose a combinatorial pathway to activation that ensures that vinculin is activated only at sites of cell adhesion when two or more of its binding partners are brought into apposition.     

Induction of gut in Caenorhabditis elegans embryos.

Two types of developmental events can cause an embryonic cell to adopt a fate different from that of its neighbours: during a cell division particular contents may be segregated to only one daughter cell and cells may experience different external cues, commonly in the form of inductive cell interactions. Work on development in the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans suggests that most cell fates are specified without a need for cell interactions. In particular, the gut cell lineage of C. elegans has been used as a primary example of specification by differential segregation of determinants. Here I re-examine the role of induction in gut specification by isolating early blastomeres. In C. elegans, the gut derives from all the progeny of a single blastomere (E) of the eight-cell stage. When a gut precursor cell (EMS) is isolated during the first half of the four-cell stage, gut does not differentiate. Gut differentiation is rescued by recombining EMS with its posterior neighbour (P2), but not by recombining EMS with one or both of the other two cells of the four-cell stage. These results demonstrate that P2 induces EMS to form gut in C. elegans.     

维管植物导管元素分化与细胞程序性死亡

通过遗传控制的细胞死亡是植物正常生长和发育的重要过程,是近年来国内外的研究热点之一。维管植物的导管和筛管由死亡的管导分子组成,本文着重讨论了维管植物的导分子形成过程中的细胞程序性死亡（ｐｒｏｇｒａｍｍｅｄ ｃｅｌｌｄｅａｔｈＰＣＤ）的形态和化特性以及参与找在因,并介绍了植物生长发育过程中ＰＣＤ存在的时空广泛性。虽然植物发育生殖过程中的ＰＣＤ与动物细胞通过遗控制的细胞死亡是植物正常生长和发育的重要过程,是近年来国内外的研究热点之一,维管植物的导管和筛管由天文馆的导管分子组成。本文着重讨论了维管植物的导管分子形成过程中的细程序性死亡（programmed cell death PCD)的形态和生化特征以及参与的基因,并介绍了植物生长发育过程中ＰＣＤ存在的时空广泛性。虽然植物发育和生殖过程中的ＰＣＤ与动物细胞凋亡存在许多相似的形太必生化特征,但细胞通过自溶或自自我吞噬来死亡,而并不形成动物细胞凋亡中典型的凋亡小体。说明这些ＰＣＤ类型本质上凋亡型ＰＣＤ。导管分子的死亡是一种典型的植物ＰＣＤ。近年来体外系统研究表明,导管元素分析中的细胞死亡程序与动物细胞凋亡不同。     

Molecular and biological characterization of a murine ligand for CD40.

The CD40 surface molecule is a 277-amino-acid glycoprotein expressed on B lymphocytes, epithelial cells and some carcinoma cell lines. Monoclonal antibodies against CD40 mediate a variety of effects on B lymphocytes, including induction of intercellular adhesion, short- and long-term proliferation, differentiation and enhanced tyrosine phosphorylation of proteins. In addition, germinal centre centrocytes are prevented from undergoing apoptosis by activation through CD40 and receptor for antigen. These data indicate that CD40 could be a receptor for an unknown ligand with important functions in B-cell development and activation. This hypothesis is strengthened by the homology of the extracellular region of the CD40 molecule with a family of cell-surface glycoproteins that includes the receptors for nerve growth factor and tumour necrosis factor. Here we report the cloning of a ligand for CD40 that is expressed on the cell surface of activated T cells and mediates B-cell proliferation in the absence of co-stimulus, as well as IgE production in the presence of interleukin-4.     

Sphingolipid signalling in Arabidopsis guard cells involves heterotrimeric G proteins

In animals, the sphingolipid metabolite sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P) functions as both an intracellular messenger and an extracellular ligand for G-protein-coupled receptors of the S1P receptor family, regulating diverse biological processes ranging from cell proliferation to apoptosis. Recently, it was discovered in plants that S1P is a signalling molecule involved in abscisic acid (ABA) regulation of guard cell turgor. Here we report that the enzyme responsible for S1P production, sphingosine kinase (SphK), is activated by ABA in Arabidopsis thaliana, and is involved in both ABA inhibition of stomatal opening and promotion of stomatal closure. Consistent with this observation, inhibition of SphK attenuates ABA regulation of guard cell inward K(+) channels and slow anion channels, which are involved in the regulation of stomatal pore size. Surprisingly, S1P regulates stomatal apertures and guard cell ion channel activities in wild-type plants, but not in knockout lines of the sole prototypical heterotrimeric G-protein alpha-subunit gene, GPA1 (refs 5, 6, 7-8). Our results implicate heterotrimeric G proteins as downstream elements in the S1P signalling pathway that mediates ABA regulation of stomatal function, and suggest that the interplay between S1P and heterotrimeric G proteins represents an evolutionarily conserved signalling mechanism.     

6种竹子叶器官的解剖结构比较

【目的】探究竹子营养叶与秆箨之间的关系,揭示竹子不同功能叶器官的结构差异,为竹类植物的基础生物学研究提供新的理论信息。【方法】以6种竹子即勃氏甜龙竹(Dendrocalamus brandisii)、慈竹(Bambusa emeiensis)、绵竹(Lingnania intermedia)、香竹(Chimonocalamus delicatus)、云南箭竹(Fargesia yunnanensis)和美竹(Phyllostachys mannii)的营养叶、秆箨和叶枝为研究对象,观察它们的显微结构,并对其各项指标进行测量与比较。【结果】竹子营养叶解剖结构具有指状臂细胞或梅花状细胞的分化,并且具有薄壁维管鞘细胞;秆上部的箨片形态更接近于叶片,而下部的箨片具有较厚的角质层,无叶肉细胞的分化,与叶片形态差异明显。竹子营养叶的叶片、叶柄、叶鞘和叶枝维管束韧皮部的面积占比均高于木质部,与秆箨(笋箨)有显著差异。秆箨(笋箨)的箨鞘与箨片维管束木质部面积占比更高,虽然秆上部箨片形状和大小都与叶片接近,但与叶片相比,其维管束木质部面积占比更高。叶鞘和箨鞘的解剖结构与叶片和箨片的有区别,与叶柄的结构基...     

盘基网柄菌细胞发育中gp150分子与凋亡蛋白作用分析

用Percoll密度梯度技术分离和收集盘基网柄菌前柄和前孢子细胞,Western blot分析gp150分子和胱天蛋白酶在前孢子细胞和前柄细胞两种类型细胞中的表达情况.结果显示：只能在前柄细胞中检测到gp150蛋白条带,并随细胞发育蛋白的量逐渐增加,提示gp150蛋白的表达量与发育时间,前柄细胞分化有密切关系;在前柄细胞中能检测到31.5 kD和37.5 kD分子量大小的凋亡蛋白,且蛋白量也是随发育时间有所增加,在两种类型细胞中都可检测38.2 kD的凋亡蛋白.这些数据表明盘基网柄菌细胞凋亡过程中有类似Caspase-3的蛋白表达,它们的存在与细胞凋亡存在密切关系; gp150分子的表达与胱天蛋白酶的激活可能存在一定关系.     

刺槐根瘤发育过程外部形态和结构的观察

本文对豆科树种刺槐（Robinia pseudoacacia)根瘤发育过程的外部形态（形状、大小、颜色）变化进行了定位观察，并对各不同发育时期的根瘤内部结构变化 作了连续石蜡切片的观察，对它们之间关系进行了初步探讨。     

Signal for T-cell differentiation to a CD4 cell lineage is delivered by CD4 transmembrane region and/or cytoplasmic tail.

Mature T cells express either CD4 or CD8 on their surface. Most helper T cells express CD4, which binds to class II major histocompatibility complex (MHC) proteins, and most cytotoxic T cells express CD8, which binds to class I MHC proteins. In the thymus, mature CD4+CD8- and CD4-CD8+ T cells expressing alpha beta T-cell antigen receptors (TCR) develop from immature thymocytes through CD4+CD8+ alpha beta TCR+ intermediates. Experiments using mice transgenic for alpha beta TCR suggest that the specificity of the TCR determines the CD4/CD8 phenotype of mature T cells. These results, however, do not indicate how a T cell differentiates into the CD4 or CD8 lineage. Here we show that the CD4 transmembrane region and/or cytoplasmic tail mediates the delivery of a specific signal that directs differentiation of T cells to a CD4 lineage. We generated transgenic mice expressing a hybrid molecule composed of the CD8 alpha extracellular domains linked to the CD4 transmembrane region and cytoplasmic tail. We predicted that this hybrid molecule would bind to class I MHC proteins through the extracellular domains but deliver the intracellular signals characteristic of CD4. By crossing our transgenic mice with mice expressing a transgenic alpha beta TCR specific for a particular antigen plus class I MHC protein, we were able to express the hybrid molecule in developing thymocytes expressing the class I MHC-restricted TCR. Our results show that the signal transduced by the hybrid molecule results in the differentiation of immature thymocytes expressing a class I-restricted TCR into mature T cells expressing CD4.     

3种入侵杂草次生木质部的细胞结构

运用离析法和显微照相等技术,比较了黄顶菊、豚草、加拿大一枝黄花3种入侵植物茎和根中次生木质部细胞的特征。结果表明,3种入侵植物根、茎的次生木质部中孔纹和网纹导管分子较多,具多尾性,单穿孔板,少数导管分子还具侵填体等特征,这都在一定程度上说明3种植物在系统进化中占有较高的地位。同一种植物中茎的导管分子平均长度长于根中,平均宽度宽于根中,且均达极显著差异;同一种植物的茎中和根中导管分子的长度、宽度并不一定有一致性。管胞细胞、纤维细胞的平均长度和宽度在3种植物间均未表现出一定的规律性。这些现象都说明植物为了更好的适应不同的生活环境而形成了一定的结构。     

Auxin transport inhibitors block PIN1 cycling and vesicle trafficking

Polar transport of the phytohormone auxin mediates various processes in plant growth and development, such as apical dominance, tropisms, vascular patterning and axis formation. This view is based largely on the effects of polar auxin transport inhibitors. These compounds disrupt auxin efflux from the cell but their mode of action is unknown. It is thought that polar auxin flux is caused by the asymmetric distribution of efflux carriers acting at the plasma membrane. The polar localization of efflux carrier candidate PIN1 supports this model. Here we show that the seemingly static localization of PIN1 results from rapid actin-dependent cycling between the plasma membrane and endosomal compartments. Auxin transport inhibitors block PIN1 cycling and inhibit trafficking of membrane proteins that are unrelated to auxin transport. Our data suggest that PIN1 cycling is of central importance for auxin transport and that auxin transport inhibitors affect efflux by generally interfering with membrane-trafficking processes. In support of our conclusion, the vesicle-trafficking inhibitor brefeldin A mimics physiological effects of auxin transport inhibitors.     

吊兰及其变种叶片结构的比较解剖学研究

吊兰及其变种(银心吊兰、银边吊兰)是重要的室内观赏、园艺装饰植物。采用徒手切片、显微观察与测量及数理统计等方法,比较其叶的解剖结构。结果表明:①吊兰、银心吊兰和银边吊兰均为等面叶;叶的结构由表皮、叶肉、叶脉组成。上下表皮由1层细胞组成;气孔器均分布于下表皮,且呈带状排列;叶肉没有栅栏组织和海绵组织之分;叶脉结构简单,由木质部、韧皮部和机械组织组成。②吊兰及其变种叶外观色彩区别明显,叶面积显著差异;上表皮细胞厚度约为下表皮细胞的两倍;上下表皮细胞径向厚度、切向长度、角质层厚度、气孔密度差异明显;叶肉细胞形态和叶绿体数量差异显著;叶脉维管束在横切面上的长度差异极显著;这些特征可以作为吊兰及其变种间的分类学指标。     

Characteristics of C4 photosynthesis in stems and petioles of C3 flowering plants.

Most plants are known as C3 plants because the first product of photosynthetic CO2 fixation is a three-carbon compound. C4 plants, which use an alternative pathway in which the first product is a four-carbon compound, have evolved independently many times and are found in at least 18 families. In addition to differences in their biochemistry, photosynthetic organs of C4 plants show alterations in their anatomy and ultrastructure. Little is known about whether the biochemical or anatomical characteristics of C4 photosynthesis evolved first. Here we report that tobacco, a typical C3 plant, shows characteristics of C4 photosynthesis in cells of stems and petioles that surround the xylem and phloem, and that these cells are supplied with carbon for photosynthesis from the vascular system and not from stomata. These photosynthetic cells possess high activities of enzymes characteristic of C4 photosynthesis, which allow the decarboxylation of four-carbon organic acids from the xylem and phloem, thus releasing CO2 for photosynthesis. These biochemical characteristics of C4 photosynthesis in cells around the vascular bundles of stems of C3 plants might explain why C4 photosynthesis has evolved independently many times.     

Haemonectin, a bone marrow adhesion protein specific for cells of granulocyte lineage

There is substantial evidence that the haematopoietic microenvironment is crucial to the growth and differentiation of haematopoietic cells. This microenvironment is composed of stromal cells, soluble factors and extracellular matrix (ECM). We have shown that a complex extract of bone marrow ECM can stimulate the growth and differentiation of haematopoietic cells in vitro. Furthermore, the use of inhibitors or stimulators of ECM synthesis in long-term marrow culture affects cell proliferation. On a molecular level, however, the interactions between ECM and haematopoietic cells are not well understood. We have investigated the adhesion between specific bone marrow ECM components and haematopoietic cells, and found a protein, 'haemonectin', of relative molecular mass 60,000 in bone marrow ECM which is a lineage- and organ-specific attachment molecule for cells of granulocyte lineage. This specificity distinguishes haemonectin from previously described adhesion proteins which have a wider tissue distribution and cell type specificity.