Endstopped neurons in the visual cortex as a substrate for calculating curvature

Neurons in the visual cortex typically respond selectively to the orientation, and velocity and direction of movement, of moving-bar stimuli. These responses are generally thought to provide information about the orientation and position of lines and edges in the visual field. Some cells are also endstopped, that is selective for bars of specific lengths. Hubel and Wiesel first observed that endstopped hypercomplex cells could respond to curved stimuli and suggested they might be involved in detection of curvature, but the exact relationship between endstopping and curvature has never been determined. We present here a mathematical model relating endstopping to curvature in which the difference in response of two simple cells gives rise to endstopping and varies in proportion to curvature. We also provide physiological evidence that endstopped cells in area 17 of the cat visual cortex are selective for curvature, whereas non-endstopped cells are not, and that some are selective for the sign of curvature. The prevailing view of edge and curve determination is that orientations are selected locally by the class of simple cortical cells and then integrated to form global curves. We have developed a computational theory of orientation selection which shows that measurements of orientation obtained by simple cells are not sufficient because there will be strong, incorrect responses from cells whose receptive fields (RFs) span distinct curves (Fig. 1). If estimates of curvature are available, however, these inappropriate responses can be eliminated. Curvature provides the key to structuring the network that underlies our theory and distinguishes it from previous lateral inhibition schemes.     

透明质酸基普鲁兰糖载药微球制备与体内外评价

普鲁兰糖(Pu)和透明质酸(HA)天然高分子材料具备良好生物相容性,常用作药物载体,但此类天然高分子降解快,限制其作为药物的缓释功能载体的应用.本文拟采用自制抗酶降解的透明质酸接枝普鲁兰糖(HA-Pu)材料溶液为水相,液体石蜡为油相,Span 80为乳化剂,戊二醛为交联剂,利用乳化交联法制备HA-Pu微球(HA-Pu MPs). 利用Box-Behnken Design(BBD)法,考察转速、油水比和HA-Pu质量浓度等3因素对微球粒径的影响,当选择670 r/min搅拌转速,5.6∶1(体积比)油水比和44.8 mg/mL HA-Pu的最佳制备条件,可获得形态圆整且平均粒径约为18 μm的微球. 样品红外图谱显示,制备微球成功交联. 以阿霉素(DOX)为模型药,交联量戊二醛0.5 mol,最佳DOX与HA-Pu投料比为2∶10(质量比),获得载药量为5.02%(质量分数),包封率为33%的(载药微球)DOX-HA-Pu MPs. 载药微球体外释药曲线拟合符合Ritger-Peppas方程. 而对比大鼠尾静脉注射DOX药物和腹腔注射DOX-HA-Pu MPs,载药微球具备缓释功能. 利用HA-Pu材料抗酶降解性质,采用乳化交联法制备HA-Pu MPs,方法简单易行,制备微球有望成为抗瘤药物的缓释载体.     

Formation of target-specific neuronal projections in organotypic slice cultures from rat visual cortex.

A characteristic feature of the mammalian cortex is that projection neurons located in distinct cortical layers send their axons to different targets. In visual cortex, cells in layers 2 and 3 project to other cortical areas, whereas cells in layers 5 and 6 project to subcortical targets such as the lateral geniculate nucleus. The proper development of these projections is crucial for correct functioning of the visual system. Here we show that specific connections are established in an organotypic culture system in which rat visual cortex slices are co-cultured with another slice of the visual cortex or with a thalamic slice. The laminar origin and cellular morphology in vitro of cortical projections to other cortical regions or to subcortical targets are remarkably similar to those seen in vivo. In addition, axons of projecting cells are not restricted to particular pathways, but appear instead to grow directly towards their appropriate target. These observations raise the possibility that chemotropic attraction from the target areas may play an important part in the development of the cortical projection pattern.     

In vitro and in vivo studies on biodegradable magnesium alloy

The microstructure, mechanical property, electrochemical behavior and biocompatibility of magnesium alloy(Bio De MSM^TM) were studied in the present work. The experimental results demonstrated that grain refining induced by extrusion improves the alloy strength significantly from162 MPa for the as-cast alloy to 241 MPa for the as-extruded one. The anticorrosion properties of the as-extruded alloy also increased.Furthermore, the hemolysis ratio was decreased from 4.7% for the as-cast alloy to 2.9% for the as-extruded one, both below 5%. Bio De MSM^TMalloy shows good biocompatibility after being implanted into the dorsal muscle and the femoral shaft of the New Zealand rabbit, respectively, and there are no abnormalities after short-term implantation. In vivo observation indicated that the corrosion rate of this alloy varies with different implantation positions, with higher degradation rate in the femur than in the muscle.     

Spatio-temporal correlations and visual signalling in a complete neuronal population

Statistical dependencies in the responses of sensory neurons govern both the amount of stimulus information conveyed and the means by which downstream neurons can extract it. Although a variety of measurements indicate the existence of such dependencies, their origin and importance for neural coding are poorly understood. Here we analyse the functional significance of correlated firing in a complete population of macaque parasol retinal ganglion cells using a model of multi-neuron spike responses. The model, with parameters fit directly to physiological data, simultaneously captures both the stimulus dependence and detailed spatio-temporal correlations in population responses, and provides two insights into the structure of the neural code. First, neural encoding at the population level is less noisy than one would expect from the variability of individual neurons: spike times are more precise, and can be predicted more accurately when the spiking of neighbouring neurons is taken into account. Second, correlations provide additional sensory information: optimal, model-based decoding that exploits the response correlation structure extracts 20% more information about the visual scene than decoding under the assumption of independence, and preserves 40% more visual information than optimal linear decoding. This model-based approach reveals the role of correlated activity in the retinal coding of visual stimuli, and provides a general framework for understanding the importance of correlated activity in populations of neurons.     

Biocompatibility studies of silk fibroin-based artificial nerve grafts in vitro and in vivo

Silk fibroin (SF) has been used extensively in the biomedical field including tissue engineering for the generation of artificial bones, skins or ligaments. We have previously reported on good in vitro biocompatibility of SF fibers with peripheral nerve tissues and cells. In the present study, we developed a novel design of the SF-based artificial nerve graft (SF graft) which was composed of a SF-nerve guidance conduit (NGC) inserted with SF fibers. MTT assay was performed to determine the cytotoxicity of the SF-NGC extract fluid on the cultured L929 cells derived from an immortalized mouse fibroblast cell line. In addition, this SF graft was implanted into adult rats for bridging a 10-mm long sciatic nerve defect. The following-up experiments at initial stage (1—4 week) of nerve regeneration including routine blood tests and histochemical investigation were conducted to evaluate the in vivo biocompatibility of the SF graft with peripheral nerves. The results demonstrated that the SF-NGC graft was biocompatible with the surrounding tissues and cells due to its low inflammatory potential with a grade 0 under the U.S. Pharmacopeia guidelines and it was generally suitable to a certain degree for bridging peripheral nerve defects in virtue of supporting Schwann cell adherence, expansion and migration. Therefore the SF graft is a promising alternative to classical autografts for peripheral nerve repair.     

Biocompatibility studies of silk fibroin-based artificial nerve grafts in vitro and in vivo

Silk fibroin(SF)has been used extensively in the biomedical field including tissue engineering for the generation of artificial bones,skins or ligaments.We have previously reported on good in vitro biocompatibility of SF fibers with peripheral nerve tissues and cells.In the present study,we developed a novel design of the SF-based artificial nerve graft(SF graft)which was composed of a SF-nerve guidance conduit(NGC)inserted with SF fibers.MTT assay was performed to determine the cytotoxicity of the SF-NGC extract fluid on the cultured L929 cells derived from an immortalized mouse fibroblast cell line.In addition,this SF graft was implanted into adult rats for bridging a 10-mm long sciatic nerve defect.The following-up experiments at initial stage(1-4 week)of nerve regeneration including routine blood tests and histochemical investigation were conducted to evaluate the in vivo biocompatibility of the SF graft with peripheral nerves.The results demonstrated that the SF-NGC graft was biocompatible with the surrounding tissues and cells due to its low inflammatory potential with a grade 0 under the U.S.Pharmacopeia guidelines and it was generally suitable to a certain degree for bridging peripheral nerve defects in virtue of supporting Schwann cell adherence,expansion and migration.Therefore the SF graft is a promising alternative to classical autografts for peripheral nerve repair.     

壳聚糖药物微球载体研究进展

壳聚糖是仅次于纤维素的天然多糖,因表面电荷密度高,毒副作用小,可生物降解,生物相容性好,兼具有强的生物粘附作用,使其在药物载体中具有独特的优势。主要介绍了壳聚糖微球作为药物载体常用的制备方法、释药特性、影响因素,以及在药物应用中的最新研究进展;指出了其在商品化方面亟须解决的问题。     

Aspartate and glutamate as possible neurotransmitters of cells in layer 6 of the visual cortex

Earlier work has suggested that aspartate, glutamate and gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) act as transmitters in the cerebral cortex. There is reasonable evidence for the identity of the cell population responsible for GABA release but until now there has been little evidence concerning the sources for release of aspartate and glutamate. Here we have used two approaches to identify possible neurotransmitters used by cells in the visual cortex: measurement of the efflux of endogenous compounds in conditions of synaptic release and localization of these compounds to particular cell classes using neurotransmitter-specific histochemical techniques. Our results suggest that the acidic amino acids aspartate and glutamate may be cortical neurotransmitters, as shown by calcium-dependent release from endogenous stores and by uptake specific to pyramidal cells in layer 6 of the cortex. These substances may therefore have a role in the function of layer 6 cells, which are responsible for the recurrent projection from the cortex to the lateral geniculate nucleus and for the projection within the cortex from layer 6 to layer 4.     

白蛋白聚乳酸缓释微球的制备及体外释放研究

文章研究了复乳法制备聚乳酸-白蛋白复合微球和白蛋白的体外释放。以包封率为指标,通过正交实验优化制备工艺条件;对复合微球的大小、形态、负载率和体外释药进行了研究。结果表明制备的复合微球外观圆整,粒径主要分布在10~40μm,白蛋白的包封率为(85.25±2.5)%,负载率为(14.52±0.42)%。该复合微球在体外缓释白蛋白达27 d以上,主要通过扩散控释机制,缓释曲线符合Higuchi方程。     

Columns for visual features of objects in monkey inferotemporal cortex.

At early stages of the mammalian visual cortex, neurons with similar stimulus selectivities are vertically arrayed through the thickness of the cortical sheet and clustered in patches or bands across the surface. This organization, referred to as a 'column', has been found with respect to one-dimensional stimulus parameters such as orientation of stimulus contours, eye dominance of visual inputs, and direction of stimulus motion. It is unclear, however, whether information with extremely high dimensions, such as visual shape, is organized in a similar columnar fashion or in a different manner in the brain. Here we report that the anterior inferotemporal area of the monkey cortex, the final station of the visual cortical stream crucial for object recognition, consists of columns, each containing cells responsive to similar visual features of objects.     

磷酸化壳聚糖-季铵化壳聚糖载体提高体内外基因转染功效

本研究通过磷酸化壳聚糖(PC)包被季铵化壳聚糖(TMC)/质粒(pDNA)纳米复合物,制备PC/TMC/pDNA三元复合物(PTC),用于提高体内外基因转染功效.PTC粒径为100~200nm,Zeta电势为-16~-34mV,可有效缩合pDNA,保护pDNA免遭核酶降解.PC降低PTC中pDNA结合力,增加体外释放量.表面荷负电的PTC抗非特异性蛋白吸附能力强,经小窝蛋白介导的细胞内吞途径入胞后逃避溶酶体降解,细胞核内分布比例高.HEK293细胞体外转染试验结果显示,PTC体外转染效率是TMC/pDNA纳米复合物(TC)的1.5~3.1倍;小鼠胫前肌注射给药试验结果表明,PTC可显著提高基因体内转染效率.因此,合适质量比的PTC有望作为功能性基因药物的递送载体,用于基因治疗.     

洛伐他汀聚乳酸缓释微球的制备及其体外释药

采用油/水型乳化溶剂挥发法制备了洛伐他汀聚乳酸缓释微球,通过正交试验筛选最优制备工艺;考察了微球的粒径,形态,及载药量、包封率等特征,采用透析法进行微球体外释药研究。结果表明由最佳工艺制备的洛伐他汀聚乳酸微球形态圆整,粒径分布较为均匀。分子量5万聚乳酸制备的微球,载药量32.28%,包封率81.81%,平均粒径65.8μm ;分子量3万聚乳酸制备的微球,载药量27.66%,包封率60.84%,平均粒径63.3μm。二者在10d内体外累积释放率分别为34.81%和40.96%,释药动力学符合Higuchi方程。     

格列吡嗪控释微球的制备及体外释药性质

为研究口服药物控释微球的制备及其体外释药性质,以格列吡嗪为模型药物,采用喷雾干燥法制备具有恒速释药性质的微球.通过考察微球的收率、包封率以及体外释放特性,研究了载体材料、材料与药物比例以及药物释放环境对格列吡嗪控释微球释药性质的影响.结果表明,采用醋酸纤维素为载体材料,选用合适的配方,可制得具有零级释药动力学的格列吡嗪控释微球制剂,并且该制剂可以根据需要的条件在12 h或24 h内释放完毕.不同条件下微球的药物释放曲线线性拟合的相关系数在0.981～0.999之间.     

Network anatomy and in vivo physiology of visual cortical neurons

In the cerebral cortex, local circuits consist of tens of thousands of neurons, each of which makes thousands of synaptic connections. Perhaps the biggest impediment to understanding these networks is that we have no wiring diagrams of their interconnections. Even if we had a partial or complete wiring diagram, however, understanding the network would also require information about each neuron's function. Here we show that the relationship between structure and function can be studied in the cortex with a combination of in vivo physiology and network anatomy. We used two-photon calcium imaging to characterize a functional property--the preferred stimulus orientation--of a group of neurons in the mouse primary visual cortex. Large-scale electron microscopy of serial thin sections was then used to trace a portion of these neurons' local network. Consistent with a prediction from recent physiological experiments, inhibitory interneurons received convergent anatomical input from nearby excitatory neurons with a broad range of preferred orientations, although weak biases could not be rejected.     

Different voltage-dependent thresholds for inducing long-term depression and long-term potentiation in slices of rat visual cortex

In the hippocampus and neocortex, high-frequency (tetanic) stimulation of an afferent pathway leads to long-term potentiation (LTP) of synaptic transmission. In the hippocampus it has recently been shown that long-term depression (LTD) of excitatory transmission can also be induced by certain combinations of synaptic activation. In most hippocampal and all neocortical pathways studied so far, the induction of LTP requires the activation of N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor-gated conductances. Here we report that LTD can occur in neurons of slices of the rat visual cortex and that the same tetanic stimulation can induce either LTP or LTD depending on the level of depolarization of the postsynaptic neuron. By applying intracellular current injections or pharmacological disinhibition to modify the depolarizing response of the postsynaptic neuron to tetanic stimulation, we show that the mechanisms of induction of LTD and LTP are both postsynaptic. LTD is obtained if postsynaptic depolarization exceeds a critical level but remains below a threshold related to NMDA receptor-gated conductances, whereas LTP is induced if this second threshold is reached.