Altruistic punishment in humans.

Human cooperation is an evolutionary puzzle. Unlike other creatures, people frequently cooperate with genetically unrelated strangers, often in large groups, with people they will never meet again, and when reputation gains are small or absent. These patterns of cooperation cannot be explained by the nepotistic motives associated with the evolutionary theory of kin selection and the selfish motives associated with signalling theory or the theory of reciprocal altruism. Here we show experimentally that the altruistic punishment of defectors is a key motive for the explanation of cooperation. Altruistic punishment means that individuals punish, although the punishment is costly for them and yields no material gain. We show that cooperation flourishes if altruistic punishment is possible, and breaks down if it is ruled out. The evidence indicates that negative emotions towards defectors are the proximate mechanism behind altruistic punishment. These results suggest that future study of the evolution of human cooperation should include a strong focus on explaining altruistic punishment.     

NO is necessary and sufficient for egg activation at fertilization

The early steps that lead to the rise in calcium and egg activation at fertilization are unknown but of great interest--particularly with the advent of in vitro fertilization techniques for treating male infertility and whole-animal cloning by nuclear transfer. This calcium rise is required for egg activation and the subsequent events of development in eggs of all species. Injection of intact sperm or sperm extracts can activate eggs, suggesting that sperm-derived factors may be involved. Here we show that nitric oxide synthase is present at high concentration and active in sperm after activation by the acrosome reaction. An increase in nitrosation within eggs is evident seconds after insemination and precedes the calcium pulse of fertilization. Microinjection of nitric oxide donors or recombinant nitric oxide synthase recapitulates events of egg activation, whereas prior injection of oxyhaemoglobin, a physiological nitric oxide scavenger, prevents egg activation after fertilization. We conclude that nitric oxide synthase and nitric-oxide-related bioactivity satisfy the primary criteria of an egg activator: they are present in an appropriate place, active at an appropriate time, and are necessary and sufficient for successful fertilization.     

人输卵管液和输卵管上皮细胞培养液诱发精子的顶体反应

目的：探讨人输卵管液和上皮细胞培养液对人精子顶体反应的诱发作用。方法：用Ｈａｍ′ｓＦ１０作对照组，输卵管液和上皮细胞培养液为实验组，分别与生育力组（ｎ＝２０）和不育组（ｎ＝２０）的精子进行共孵育，用精子顶体三色染色法对顶体状态进行评价。结果：共孵育３ｈ时与Ｈａｍ′ｓＦ１０对照组相比较，两种输卵管液均可显著提高生育力组和不育组的精子顶反应率（Ｐ〈０．０５），但这两种输卵管液处理的生育力组与不育组之间     

似刺鳊鮈精子的超显微结构及主要生物学特性

 选取健壮无伤的似刺鳊鮈亲鱼进行人工采精,应用扫描电镜和透射电镜观察了其精子超微结构,同时研究了不同温度、盐度对精子活力的影响。结果显示：① 似刺鳊鮈精子由头部、中片和鞭毛组成。头部近圆形,主要结构是细胞核,核前端无顶体,核中染色质致密均匀,后端有植入窝;中片的袖套与细胞核相连,含有丰富的线粒体和囊泡;尾部细长,主要结构是轴丝,为典型的“9+2”微管结构。② 似刺鳊鮈精子活力较适宜温度为20～28 ℃,温度为24 ℃时精子寿命最长,为1 900 s;较适盐度为5‰～8‰,盐度7‰时精子寿命最长,为1 350 s。     

Detrimental effects of sanctions on human altruism

The existence of cooperation and social order among genetically unrelated individuals is a fundamental problem in the behavioural sciences. The prevailing approaches in biology and economics view cooperation exclusively as self-interested behaviour--unrelated individuals cooperate only if they face economic rewards or sanctions rendering cooperation a self-interested choice. Whether economic incentives are perceived as just or legitimate does not matter in these theories. Fairness-based altruism is, however, a powerful source of human cooperation. Here we show experimentally that the prevailing self-interest approach has serious shortcomings because it overlooks negative effects of sanctions on human altruism. Sanctions revealing selfish or greedy intentions destroy altruistic cooperation almost completely, whereas sanctions perceived as fair leave altruism intact. These findings challenge proximate and ultimate theories of human cooperation that neglect the distinction between fair and unfair sanctions, and they are probably relevant in all domains in which voluntary compliance matters--in relations between spouses, in the education of children, in business relations and organizations as well as in markets.     

大熊猫电刺激采精及精液冷冻保存研究

对卧龙自然保护区大熊猫研究中心的９只５．５－１６．５岁的雄性大熊猫进行了１７次电刺激采精,其中３只是能进行自然交配并繁殖了后代的种公兽,比较研究了精液离心、不同稀释液和冷冻方法对大熊猫精液超低温冷冻保存后的活力、运动状态、精子和顶体形态的影响。细冷冻是１种较好的超低温冷冻精液的方法。     

冷冻保存对人类精子顶体蛋白酶的影响

探讨了冷冻保存对人类精子顶体蛋白酶的影响,应用明胶薄层法检测,冷冻保存后精子顶体蛋白酶反应率和成环直径显著减少（ｎ＝３０,Ｐ＜０．０１）．透射电镜观察到冷冻保存后精子（ｎ＝３）头部结构完整性显著降低,提示浆膜、顶体膜超微结构的冷冻损伤与冷冻精子顶体蛋白酶活性丢失和降低有关．冷冻精子穿卵率与顶体蛋白酶反应率不呈相关性（ｎ＝２１,ｒ＝０．３４,Ｐ＞０．０５）,提示两项检测反映的是精子功能的不同方面．     

Spermatid differentiation requires the assembly of a cell polarity complex downstream of junctional adhesion molecule-C

During spermatogenesis in the mammalian testis, stem cells (spermatogonia) differentiate into spermatocytes, which subsequently undergo two consecutive meiotic divisions to give rise to haploid spermatids. These cells are initially round but progressively elongate, condense their nuclei, acquire flagellar and acrosomal structures, and shed a significant amount of their cytoplasm to form spermatozoa (the sperm cells) in a developmental cascade termed spermiogenesis. Defects in these processes will lead to a lack of mature sperm cells (azoospermia), which is a major cause of male infertility in the human population. Here we report that a cell-surface protein of the immunoglobulin superfamily, junctional adhesion molecule-C (JAM-C), is critically required for the differentiation of round spermatids into spermatozoa in mice. We found that Jam-C is essential for the polarization of round spermatids, a function that we attribute to its role in the assembly of a cell polarity complex.     

正常人和不育患者精子表面凝集素受体的研究

应用4种凝集素和经过FITC标记后分别与正常人或不育患者的精子相互作用,研究其凝集作用和膜上凝集素受体的分布.以铁蛋白或辣根过氧化物酶标记城口豆凝集素后再与精子反应,应用扫描电镜或透射电镜观察了正常人或不育患者精子表面膜受体的分布.     

"利己、利他与互利":达尔文进化论的新发展——纪念《物种起源》发表150周年

达尔文自然选择学说揭示了生物有机体的竞争进化,却无法解释个体间的利他与合作行为.20世纪下半叶,随着生物学家对动物利他与合作行为的研究,逐渐揭示了生物有机体利己与利他、竞争进化与合作进化的关系,进一步补充和完善了自然选择学说,推动了达尔文进化论的新发展.     

牛精子体外获能后的超微结构变化

用肝素 咖啡因作获能剂对牛冷冻 解冻精子进行体外获能处理 ,体外培养 1h ,在透射电镜下观察精子获能后的超微结构变化。结果表明 :(1)牛精子顶体内膜和外膜均为双层膜结构 ;(2 )精子获能后顶体囊泡化的形成有多种形式 :质膜与顶体外膜融合 ,双层顶体外膜自身融合 ,顶体外膜内陷或外突打褶 ,双层顶体内膜自身融合 ,顶体内膜外突打褶形成囊泡 ;而且在同一精子的顶体反应中可同时出现多种囊泡化形式 ;(3)精子获能后 ,头部无顶体覆盖的核后区核膜膨胀 ,并与膨胀的质膜融在一起 ;(4 )精子获能后 ,尾部质膜膨胀 ,且主段质膜比中段质膜膨胀明显 ,这可能与超激活运动有关。     

曼氏无针乌贼雄性生殖系统的组织学研究

曼氏无针乌贼雄性生殖系统由精巢和生殖导管组成,生殖导管根据各段的形态、结构、功能分为输精管、贮精囊、前列腺、精荚囊和阴茎。精巢由众多生精小管组成,生精小管内分布着不同发育阶段的生殖细胞,成熟精子悬浮在管腔中央,有规则地朝着一个方向排列,精子形态为稍弯的子弹头型或长柱状纺锤形。输精管细长,兼具运输和贮存精子的作用。贮精囊体积相对缩小,具发达的分泌细胞,为精子运输提供营养和润滑作用。     

重组人卵透明带蛋白(rhZP3)对人精子顶体反应的诱导作用

目的：观察重组人卵透明带蛋白（rhZP3）对人精子顶体反应的诱导作用。方法：正常生育力人精子经过获能后,分别用BSA、孕酮和含不同浓度的重组人ZP3蛋白的培养液共孵育。诱导精子顶体反应,对实验组和对照组的精子的顶体发生状态用考马斯亮蓝染色法进行评价。结果：精子与培养液共孵育30min后,rhZP3组与BSA组之间差异有显著性（P〈0．05）,顶体反应率随rhZP3质量浓度增加而升高。结论：重组人ZP3蛋白对人精子顶体反应有显著的诱导效应,且在一定范围内与质量浓度成正相关,重组人ZP3蛋白具有发展精子顶体反应试剂盒的潜能。     

A protein kinase encoded by the t complex responder gene causes non-mendelian inheritance

Males heterozygous for the t-haplotype form of mouse chromosome 17 preferentially transmit the t-chromosome to their progeny. Several distorter/sterility loci carried on the t-haplotype together impair flagellar function in all spermatozoa whereas the responder, Tcr, rescues t-sperm but not wild-type sperm. Thus, t-sperm have an advantage over wild-type sperm in fertilizing egg cells. We have isolated Tcr by positional cloning and show that it is a member of a novel protein kinase gene family, designated Smok, which is expressed late during spermiogenesis. Smok kinases are components of a signal cascade which may control sperm motility. Tcr has a reduced kinase activity, which may allow it to counterbalance a signalling impairment caused by the distorter/sterility loci. Tcr transgene constructs cause non-mendelian transmission of chromosomes on which they are carried, which leads to sex-ratio distortion when Tcr cosegregates with the Y chromosome.     

无机离子,蛋白质以及精清对番鸭（Cairina moschata）精子活力的影响

本文研究了K~+、Mg~(2+)、Ca~(2+)、Cl~-等无机离子、卵清白蛋白、血清白蛋白等蛋白质以及番鸭精清对精子活力的影响,研究结果表明,稀释液中,缺少K~+时,精子很快失去活力;K~+浓度为10或20mmol/L时,精子活力最高,K~+浓度增至40mmol/L时,精子活力降低;稀释液中Ca~(2+)浓度为1或3.5 mmol/L时,精子活力明显提高;稀释液中Mg~(2+)浓度在0～4mmol/L之间变化时,对精子活力无明显影响,但浓度大于10mmol/L时,精子活力明显下降;高浓度Cl~-对精子保存不利,精清以及血清白蛋白能消除由于洗涤而造成的精子粘附现象,提高精子活力,稀释液中精清所占比例较低时,有利于精子保存。     

皱纹盘鲍精巢及精子结构的研究

用光镜和电镜观察了皱纹鲍精巢和精子的结构,生精细胞通过基膜着生在分枝的结缔组织上,由基底部向精巢腔增殖。观察到５个阶段的生精细胞。精子可分为头部、中段和末段３部分,头部由顶体、顶体上腔和细胞核组成;中段由中心粒、线粒体和核糖体组成;末段细长,轴丝为典型的“９＋２”微管结构。     

Altruism through beard chromodynamics

The evolution of altruism, a behaviour that benefits others at one's own fitness expense, poses a darwinian paradox. The paradox is resolved if many interactions are with related individuals so that the benefits of altruism are reaped by copies of the altruistic gene in other individuals, a mechanism called kin selection. However, recognition of altruists could provide an alternative route towards the evolution of altruism. Arguably the simplest recognition system is a conspicuous, heritable tag, such as a green beard. Despite the fact that such genes have been reported, the 'green beard effect' has often been dismissed because it is unlikely that a single gene can code for altruism and a recognizable tag. Here we model the green beard effect and find that if recognition and altruism are always inherited together, the dynamics are highly unstable, leading to the loss of altruism. In contrast, if the effect is caused by loosely coupled separate genes, altruism is facilitated through beard chromodynamics in which many beard colours co-occur. This allows altruism to persist even in weakly structured populations and implies that the green beard effect, in the form of a fluid association of altruistic traits with a recognition tag, can be much more prevalent than hitherto assumed.     

Social evolution: kin preference in a social microbe

Kin recognition helps cooperation to evolve in many animals, but it is uncertain whether microorganisms can also use it to focus altruistic behaviour on relatives. Here we show that the social amoeba Dictyostelium purpureum prefers to form groups with its own kin in situations where some individuals die to assist others. By directing altruism towards kin, D. purpureum should generally avoid the costs of chimaerism experienced by the related D. discoideum.     

精子获能及顶体反应中与Ca~(2+)相关的变化

获能及顶体反应是受精过程中两个重要的步骤,也是受精所必需的.这两个过程可被胞内 信号调节,但具体过程还不很清楚.目前已经知道Ca2 在其中起了重要的作用.对Ca2 在获能和 顶体反应中所发挥的效应做了简要综述.