Reproductive isolation caused by colour pattern mimicry

Speciation is facilitated if ecological adaptation directly causes assortative mating, but few natural examples are known. Here we show that a shift in colour pattern mimicry was crucial in the origin of two butterfly species. The sister species Heliconius melpomene and Heliconius cydno recently diverged to mimic different model taxa, and our experiments show that their mimetic coloration is also important in choosing mates. Assortative mating between the sister species means that hybridization is rare in nature, and the few hybrids that are produced are non-mimetic, poorly adapted intermediates. Thus, the mimetic shift has caused both pre-mating and post-mating isolation. In addition, individuals from a population of H. melpomene allopatric to H. cydno court and mate with H. cydno more readily than those from a sympatric population. This suggests that assortative mating has been enhanced in sympatry.     

Speciation by hybridization in Heliconius butterflies

Speciation is generally regarded to result from the splitting of a single lineage. An alternative is hybrid speciation, considered to be extremely rare, in which two distinct lineages contribute genes to a daughter species. Here we show that a hybrid trait in an animal species can directly cause reproductive isolation. The butterfly species Heliconius heurippa is known to have an intermediate morphology and a hybrid genome, and we have recreated its intermediate wing colour and pattern through laboratory crosses between H. melpomene, H. cydno and their F1 hybrids. We then used mate preference experiments to show that the phenotype of H. heurippa reproductively isolates it from both parental species. There is strong assortative mating between all three species, and in H. heurippa the wing pattern and colour elements derived from H. melpomene and H. cydno are both critical for mate recognition by males.     

Chromosomal rearrangements maintain a polymorphic supergene controlling butterfly mimicry

Supergenes are tight clusters of loci that facilitate the co-segregation of adaptive variation, providing integrated control of complex adaptive phenotypes. Polymorphic supergenes, in which specific combinations of traits are maintained within a single population, were first described for 'pin' and 'thrum' floral types in Primula and Fagopyrum, but classic examples are also found in insect mimicry and snail morphology. Understanding the evolutionary mechanisms that generate these co-adapted gene sets, as well as the mode of limiting the production of unfit recombinant forms, remains a substantial challenge. Here we show that individual wing-pattern morphs in the polymorphic mimetic butterfly Heliconius numata are associated with different genomic rearrangements at the supergene locus P. These rearrangements tighten the genetic linkage between at least two colour-pattern loci that are known to recombine in closely related species, with complete suppression of recombination being observed in experimental crosses across a 400-kilobase interval containing at least 18 genes. In natural populations, notable patterns of linkage disequilibrium (LD) are observed across the entire P region. The resulting divergent haplotype clades and inversion breakpoints are found in complete association with wing-pattern morphs. Our results indicate that allelic combinations at known wing-patterning loci have become locked together in a polymorphic rearrangement at the P locus, forming a supergene that acts as a simple switch between complex adaptive phenotypes found in sympatry. These findings highlight how genomic rearrangements can have a central role in the coexistence of adaptive phenotypes involving several genes acting in concert, by locally limiting recombination and gene flow.     

自然杂交对植物物种生存进化的影响

自然杂交是一个常见现象,人类活动正加速自然杂交的发生,人类干扰导致的非自然的杂交过程对物种的生存、进化产生许多负面影响,本文根据文献对近年来自然杂交方面的研究进行了综述。自然杂交不仅影响着物种的生存、进化,也对物种的保护问题带来许多理论上与实践上的挑战。杂交与遗传渗入有利于提高物种的遗传多样性,为物种的进化提供原材料。遗传渗入有利于增加物种的适应性变异,甚至导致新的生态型、新物种的产生。但另一方面当小种群与大种群发生杂交时,小种群很易受遗传同化的影响而灭绝。自然杂交对生物学物种概念提出了挑战,自然杂交往往模糊种间边界,形成分类学及系统发育研究中的困难类群。自然杂交能通过强化种间生殖隔离机制来促进类群间的进化趋异,也能导致种间生殖隔离机制的崩溃,引起物种的融合而降低生物多样性。文章认为在当前生物入侵、物种灭绝加速的情况下,人们需要关注在什么条件下隔离机制被打破导致杂交的发生、遗传渗入形成机制以及如何采取有效措施防止杂交及遗传渗入对物种遗传多样性的影响。     

水稻的起源与驯化——来自基因组学的证据

 水稻是世界上最重要的粮食作物, 约1 万年前开始被驯化。由于水稻与其祖先野生种存在一定的遗传分化, 水稻的起源和驯化问题长期存在争议。本文综述了水稻起源和驯化方面的研究成果, 特别是近年来基因组学方面的证据, 认为水稻2 个亚种独立起源于野生祖先种内很早就分化的不同类群, 但一些驯化基因--控制重要农艺性状的基因, 可能首先在一个亚种中被驯化, 然后通过基因渐渗, 扩散到另一个亚种中。因此, 水稻驯化的关键是研究驯化基因的起源和扩散方式。随着大规模基因组测序技术的发展和相应数据分析方法的建立, 在全基因组水平对水稻及其祖先进行大规模分析, 已成为揭示水稻起源与驯化之谜的必由之路。     

Three-butterfly system provides a field test of müllerian mimicry

In 1879, Müller proposed that two brightly coloured distasteful butterfly species (co-models) that share a single warning-colour pattern would benefit by spreading the selective burden of educating predators. The mutual benefit of sharing warning signals among distasteful species, so-called müllerian mimicry, is supported by comparative evidence, theoretical studies and laboratory simulations; however, to date, this key exemplar of adaptive evolution has not been experimentally tested in the field. To measure natural selection generated by müllerian mimicry, I exploited the unusual polymorphism of Heliconius cydno (Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae). Here I show increased survival of H. cydno morphs that match locally abundant monomorphic co-model species. This study demonstrates müllerian mimicry in the field. It also shows that müllerian mimicry with several co-models generates geographically divergent selection, which explains the existence of polymorphism in distasteful species with warning coloration.     

生境破碎化对鼎湖山蝶类多样性的影响

随着鼎湖山自然保护区旅游业迅猛发展,人为干扰不断加剧,需了解人为干扰造成的生境破碎化对蝶类的影响.该次调查在鼎湖山自然保护区的缓冲区、核心区和旅游区共记录蝴蝶9科、90属、144种.其中蛱蝶科种类最多(35种,24.31%),保护种19种,主要为凤蝶科(4种)、眼蝶科(4种)、蛱蝶科(4种);园林害虫11种,主要为弄蝶科(3种).调查结果显示,旅游区的特有蝶类种类少(1种),其寄主为金丝桃科植物,多样性最低;而保护区内特有蝶类的种类较多(34种),主要寄主为禾本科植物;寄主植物最丰富的是山蟠蛱蝶,主要寄生于豆科植物;核心区多样性最高,其中有收录于红色名录的燕凤蝶、么妹黄粉蝶、惊恐方环蝶等.结合鼎湖山自然保护区各功能区的生境、蝶类物种多样性和群落多样性的分析结果显示,人为干扰越强,生境破碎化程度越高,蝴蝶种类数量越少,与海拔高度则无明显关系.     

江苏省云台山地蝶类多样性与区系研究

在对江苏省云台山地采集的1 000余号蝶类标本鉴定的基础上,进行该地区蝶类多样性与区系的分析.结果表明:云台山地蝶类76种隶属7科54属,其中凤蝶科5属11种,绢蝶科1属1种,粉蝶科5属6种,眼蝶科7属12种,蛱蝶科15属18种,灰蝶科10属15种,弄蝶科11属13种.系列分析表明江苏云台山地蝶类区系基本组成为:广布种占46.05%,东洋种占35.53%,古北种占18.42%.通过与江苏省内其他山地的相似度的比较,云台山地与宁镇山地的区系成分最为相似.由于受海洋性气候影响,云台山地蝶类区系成分与同纬度的相山山地蝶类区系成分有明显差异,说明局域微环境对蝶类区系影响很大.     

Selection overrides gene flow to break down maladaptive mimicry

Predators typically avoid dangerous species, and batesian mimicry evolves when a palatable species (the 'mimic') co-opts a warning signal from a dangerous species (the 'model') and thereby deceives its potential predators. Because predators would not be under selection to avoid the model and any of its look-alikes in areas where the model is absent (that is, allopatry), batesian mimics should occur only in sympatry with their model. However, contrary to this expectation, batesian mimics often occur in allopatry. Here we focus on one such example--a coral snake mimic. Using indirect DNA-based methods, we provide evidence suggesting that mimics migrate from sympatry, where mimicry is favoured, to allopatry, where it is disfavoured. Such gene flow is much stronger in nuclear genes than in maternally inherited mitochondrial genes, indicating that dispersal by males may explain the presence of mimetic phenotypes in allopatry. Despite this gene flow, however, individuals from allopatry resemble the model less than do individuals from sympatry. We show that this breakdown of mimicry probably reflects predator-mediated selection acting against individuals expressing the more conspicuous mimetic phenotype in allopatry. Thus, although gene flow may explain why batesian mimics occur in allopatry, natural selection may often override such gene flow and promote the evolution of non-mimetic phenotypes in such areas.     

青海省东北边缘地区蝴蝶多样性

为积累探讨蝴蝶的起源进化及其与环境演变的关系和蝴蝶预测预示环境的变化与优劣作用的基础资料,调查组于2011年7-8月对青海东北边缘地区蝴蝶采用样线法进行了调查,分4个植被小区进行分析讨论,获知该地区共分布蝶类161种(含文献记载),隶属于8科82属,14种是青海省新纪录.本次调查获知87种,隶属于8科,49属.分布的粉蝶和蛱蝶种类最多,均为34种,眼蝶30种,灰蝶29种,凤蝶和蚬蝶只有3种.5种生境中,农田物种数、个体数、多样性指数和均匀度均最高,是这个地区特有的现象.从数量等级分析,13种历史记载为优势种的蝴蝶,有5种数量等级保持不变,有5种降为常见种,3种降为少见种,同时新增6个优势种,反映了过去10多年间该地区环境的某种变化.冷龙岭和黄湟谷地小区系统中,优势种比例高,罕见种比例低,预示着系统的健康状况低、或者有下降可能.青海东北边缘地区蝴蝶分布型具有非常明显的边缘效应特征,其泛布种、广布种和共有种127个,占全区分布蝴蝶的78.88%;该地区区系具备基本古北区性质,古北种27个;占16.77%;由于青海东北边缘地区非常突出的过渡性质,特有种非常罕见,共7个,仅占4.35%,其中青藏区3个,西南、东北、华北和华中区各1个.青海东北边缘地区分布的蝴蝶中,有哪些种类地理分布范围的某段边界线是在我们调查的这个区域内值得进一步研究.     

井冈山地区蝶类资源新记录

在《井冈山蝶类志》的基础上,笔者于2009~2012年开展了对井冈山地区蝶类资源的连续性野外调查研究。期间通过拍摄蝶类生态照片,采集成虫标本,或者采集卵和幼虫进行人工饲养等方式,获取大量蝶类资源样本,系统整理后进行物种的分类鉴定。结果显示,井冈山地区已知蝶类达到275种,隶属11科145属(亚属);其中,新记录的蝶类物种有44种,隶属9科37属。结果还表明,环境保护越好的区域,蝶类资源也越丰富。     

Single gene circles in dinoflagellate chloroplast genomes.

Photosynthetic dinoflagellates are important aquatic primary producers and notorious causes of toxic 'red tides'. Typical dinoflagellate chloroplasts differ from all other plastids in having a combination of three envelope membranes and peridinin-chlorophyll a/c light-harvesting pigments. Despite evidence of a dinoflagellete satellite DNA containing chloroplast genes, previous attempts to obtain chloroplast gene sequences have been uniformly unsuccessful. Here we show that the dinoflagellate chloroplast DNA genome structure is unique. Complete sequences of chloroplast ribosomal RNA genes and seven chloroplast protein genes from the dinoflagellate Heterocapsa triquetra reveal that each is located alone on a separate minicircular chromosome: 'one gene-one circle'. The genes are the most divergent known from chloroplast genomes. Each circle has an unusual tripartite non-coding region (putative replicon origin), which is highly conserved among the nine circles through extensive gene conversion, but is very divergent between species. Several other dinoflagellate species have minicircular chloroplast genes, indicating that this type of genomic organization may have evolved in ancestral peridinean dinoflagellates. Phylogenetic analysis indicates that dinoflagellate chloroplasts are related to chromistan and red algal chloroplasts and supports their origin by secondary symbiogenesis.     

Co-mimics have a mutualistic relationship despite unequal defences

In the first clear mathematical treatment of natural selection, Müller proposed that a shared warning signal (mimicry) would benefit defended prey species by sharing out the per capita mortality incurred during predator education. Although mimicry is a mainstay of adaptationist thinking, there has been repeated debate on whether there is a mutualistic or a parasitic relationship between unequally defended co-mimic species. Here we show that the relationship between unequally defended species is mutualistic. We examined this in a 'novel world' of artificial prey with wild predators (great tit, Parus major). We kept the abundance of a highly defended prey ('model') constant and increased the density of a moderately defended prey ('defended mimic') of either perfect or imperfect mimetic resemblance to the model. Both model and defended mimic showed a net benefit from a density-dependent decrease in their per capita mortality. Even when the effect of dilution through density was controlled for, defended mimics did not induce additional attacks on the model, but we found selection for accurate signal mimicry. In comparison, the addition of fully edible (batesian) mimics did increase additional attacks on the model, but as a result of dilution this resulted in no overall increase in per capita mortality. By ignoring the effects of density, current theories may have overestimated the parasitic costs imposed by less defended mimics on highly defended models.     

甘蓝-白芥单体异附加系自交后代的GISH分析

将甘蓝-白芥单体异附加系自交,获得了其自交后代.利用基因组原位杂交(genomicin situhy-bridization,GISH),结合双色荧光原位杂交(dual-colour fluorescencein situhybridization,dcFISH)技术,从这些自交后代中鉴定出了纯合的甘蓝-白芥二体异附加系植株.GISH分析结果表明,甘蓝-白芥二体异附加系有丝分裂中期具有18条甘蓝染色体及2条白芥染色体,减数分裂中期I表现为9个C染色体二价体及1个S染色体二价体,减数分裂后期I会出现落后的1对S染色体,有时落后的1对S染色体形成染色体桥.     

Genomic and genic sequence variation in synthetic hexaploid wheat （AABBDD） as compared to their parental species

In order to understand the genomic changes during the evolution of hexaploid wheat, two sets of synthetic hexaploid wheat from hybridization between maternal tetraploid wheat （AABB） and paternal diploid goat grass （DD） were used for DNA-AFLP and single strand conformation polymorphism （SSCP） analysis to determine the genomic and genic variation in the synthetic hexaploid wheat. Results indicated that more DNA sequences from paternal diploid species were eliminated in the synthetic hexaploid wheat than from maternal tetraploid wheat, suggesting that genome from parental species of lower ploidity tends to be eliminated preferentially. However, sequence variation detected by SSCP procedure was much lower than those detected by DNA-AFLP, which indicated that much less variation in the genic regions occurred in the synthetic hexaploid wheat, and sequence variations detected by DNA-AFLP could be derived mostly from non-coding regions and repetitive sequences. Our results also indicated that sequence variation in 4 genes can be detected in hybrid F1, which suggested that this type of sequence variation could be resulted from distant hybridization. It was interesting to note that 3 out of the 4 genes were mapped and clustered on the long arm of chromosome 2D, which indicated that variation in genic sequences in synthetic hexaploid wheat might not be a randomized process.     

孟达林区蝶类及其垂直分布

本文初次报道了青海省循化县孟达林区的蝶类，共计７２种，隶属于７科５０属。初步总结出这些蝶类的垂直分布规律，并据此规律划分为五个主要分布带：（１）温性河谷草原灌丛带（１７８０－２０００ｍ）；（２）华山松－辽东栎－山杨林带（２０００－２２０ｍ）；９３）小檗－荚莲灌木林带（２２００－２５００ｍ）；（４）青杵－红桦林带（２５００－２９００ｍ）；（５）高寒灌灌丛带（２９００ｍ以上）。文中针对此分布规律进行了     

Genomic and genie sequence variation in synthetic hexaploid wheat(AABBDD)as compared to their parental species

In order to understand the genomic changes during the evolution of hexaploid wheat,two sets of synthetic hexaploid wheat from hybridization between maternal tetraploid wheat (AABB) and paternal diploid goat grass(DD)were used for DNA-AFLP and single strand conformation polymorphism (SSCP) analysis to determine the genomic and genie variation in the synthetic hexaploid wheat.Results indicated that more DNA sequences from paternal diploid species wen eliminated in the synthetic hexaploid wheat than from maternal tetraploid wheat,suggesting that genome from parental species of lower ploidity tends to be eliminated preferentially.However,sequence variation detected by SSCP procedure was much lower than those detected by DNA-AFLP.which indicated that much less variation in the genie regions occurred in the synthetic hexaploid wheat.and sequence variations detected by DNA-AFLP could be derived mostly from non-coding regions and repetitive sequences.Our results also indicated that sequence variation in 4 genes can be detected in hybrid F1.which suggested that this type of sequence variation could be resulted from distant hybridization.It was interesting to note that 3 out of the 4 genes were mapped and clustered on the long alTll of chromosome 2D,which indicated that variation in genic sequences in synthetic hexaploid wheat might not be a randomized process.     

Difference in metapopulation structure and dynamics of two species of coexistent melitaeine butterflies

Habitat fragmentation has been considered to be the most important cause of the extinction and the loss of bio-diversity[1,2]. With the increase of human activities in re-cent years, natural habitat decreased rapidly and patches became smaller and more isolated[3,4]. This leads to an obvious change of population structure and dynamics of many species. However, some species may persist as metapopulations in seriously fragmented landscapes[5]. Metapopulation theory and methodology is estab-lish…     

Functional genomic analysis of cell division in C. elegans using RNAi of genes on chromosome III

Genome sequencing projects generate a wealth of information; however, the ultimate goal of such projects is to accelerate the identification of the biological function of genes. This creates a need for comprehensive studies to fill the gap between sequence and function. Here we report the results of a functional genomic screen to identify genes required for cell division in Caenorhabditis elegans. We inhibited the expression of approximately 96% of the approximately 2,300 predicted open reading frames on chromosome III using RNA-mediated interference (RNAi). By using an in vivo time-lapse differential interference contrast microscopy assay, we identified 133 genes (approximately 6%) necessary for distinct cellular processes in early embryos. Our results indicate that these genes represent most of the genes on chromosome III that are required for proper cell division in C. elegans embryos. The complete data set, including sample time-lapse recordings, has been deposited in an open access database. We found that approximately 47% of the genes associated with a differential interference contrast phenotype have clear orthologues in other eukaryotes, indicating that this screen provides putative gene functions for other species as well.