Winter forest soil respiration controlled by climate and microbial community composition

Most terrestrial carbon sequestration at mid-latitudes in the Northern Hemisphere occurs in seasonal, montane forest ecosystems. Winter respiratory carbon dioxide losses from these ecosystems are high, and over half of the carbon assimilated by photosynthesis in the summer can be lost the following winter. The amount of winter carbon dioxide loss is potentially susceptible to changes in the depth of the snowpack; a shallower snowpack has less insulation potential, causing colder soil temperatures and potentially lower soil respiration rates. Recent climate analyses have shown widespread declines in the winter snowpack of mountain ecosystems in the western USA and Europe that are coupled to positive temperature anomalies. Here we study the effect of changes in snow cover on soil carbon cycling within the context of natural climate variation. We use a six-year record of net ecosystem carbon dioxide exchange in a subalpine forest to show that years with a reduced winter snowpack are accompanied by significantly lower rates of soil respiration. Furthermore, we show that the cause of the high sensitivity of soil respiration rate to changes in snow depth is a unique soil microbial community that exhibits exponential growth and high rates of substrate utilization at the cold temperatures that exist beneath the snow. Our observations suggest that a warmer climate may change soil carbon sequestration rates in forest ecosystems owing to changes in the depth of the insulating snow cover.     

Prolonged suppression of ecosystem carbon dioxide uptake after an anomalously warm year

Terrestrial ecosystems control carbon dioxide fluxes to and from the atmosphere through photosynthesis and respiration, a balance between net primary productivity and heterotrophic respiration, that determines whether an ecosystem is sequestering carbon or releasing it to the atmosphere. Global and site-specific data sets have demonstrated that climate and climate variability influence biogeochemical processes that determine net ecosystem carbon dioxide exchange (NEE) at multiple timescales. Experimental data necessary to quantify impacts of a single climate variable, such as temperature anomalies, on NEE and carbon sequestration of ecosystems at interannual timescales have been lacking. This derives from an inability of field studies to avoid the confounding effects of natural intra-annual and interannual variability in temperature and precipitation. Here we present results from a four-year study using replicate 12,000-kg intact tallgrass prairie monoliths located in four 184-m(3) enclosed lysimeters. We exposed 6 of 12 monoliths to an anomalously warm year in the second year of the study and continuously quantified rates of ecosystem processes, including NEE. We find that warming decreases NEE in both the extreme year and the following year by inducing drought that suppresses net primary productivity in the extreme year and by stimulating heterotrophic respiration of soil biota in the subsequent year. Our data indicate that two years are required for NEE in the previously warmed experimental ecosystems to recover to levels measured in the control ecosystems. This time lag caused net ecosystem carbon sequestration in previously warmed ecosystems to be decreased threefold over the study period, compared with control ecosystems. Our findings suggest that more frequent anomalously warm years, a possible consequence of increasing anthropogenic carbon dioxide levels, may lead to a sustained decrease in carbon dioxide uptake by terrestrial ecosystems.     

Net carbon dioxide losses of northern ecosystems in response to autumn warming

The carbon balance of terrestrial ecosystems is particularly sensitive to climatic changes in autumn and spring, with spring and autumn temperatures over northern latitudes having risen by about 1.1 degrees C and 0.8 degrees C, respectively, over the past two decades. A simultaneous greening trend has also been observed, characterized by a longer growing season and greater photosynthetic activity. These observations have led to speculation that spring and autumn warming could enhance carbon sequestration and extend the period of net carbon uptake in the future. Here we analyse interannual variations in atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration data and ecosystem carbon dioxide fluxes. We find that atmospheric records from the past 20 years show a trend towards an earlier autumn-to-winter carbon dioxide build-up, suggesting a shorter net carbon uptake period. This trend cannot be explained by changes in atmospheric transport alone and, together with the ecosystem flux data, suggest increasing carbon losses in autumn. We use a process-based terrestrial biosphere model and satellite vegetation greenness index observations to investigate further the observed seasonal response of northern ecosystems to autumnal warming. We find that both photosynthesis and respiration increase during autumn warming, but the increase in respiration is greater. In contrast, warming increases photosynthesis more than respiration in spring. Our simulations and observations indicate that northern terrestrial ecosystems may currently lose carbon dioxide in response to autumn warming, with a sensitivity of about 0.2 PgC degrees C(-1), offsetting 90% of the increased carbon dioxide uptake during spring. If future autumn warming occurs at a faster rate than in spring, the ability of northern ecosystems to sequester carbon may be diminished earlier than previously suggested.     

Acclimatization of soil respiration to warming in a tall grass prairie.

The latest report by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) predicts a 1.4-5.8 degrees C average increase in the global surface temperature over the period 1990 to 2100 (ref. 1). These estimates of future warming are greater than earlier projections, which is partly due to incorporation of a positive feedback. This feedback results from further release of greenhouse gases from terrestrial ecosystems in response to climatic warming. The feedback mechanism is usually based on the assumption that observed sensitivity of soil respiration to temperature under current climate conditions would hold in a warmer climate. However, this assumption has not been carefully examined. We have therefore conducted an experiment in a tall grass prairie ecosystem in the US Great Plains to study the response of soil respiration (the sum of root and heterotrophic respiration) to artificial warming of about 2 degrees C. Our observations indicate that the temperature sensitivity of soil respiration decreases--or acclimatizes--under warming and that the acclimatization is greater at high temperatures. This acclimatization of soil respiration to warming may therefore weaken the positive feedback between the terrestrial carbon cycle and climate.     

Europe-wide reduction in primary productivity caused by the heat and drought in 2003

Future climate warming is expected to enhance plant growth in temperate ecosystems and to increase carbon sequestration. But although severe regional heatwaves may become more frequent in a changing climate, their impact on terrestrial carbon cycling is unclear. Here we report measurements of ecosystem carbon dioxide fluxes, remotely sensed radiation absorbed by plants, and country-level crop yields taken during the European heatwave in 2003. We use a terrestrial biosphere simulation model to assess continental-scale changes in primary productivity during 2003, and their consequences for the net carbon balance. We estimate a 30 per cent reduction in gross primary productivity over Europe, which resulted in a strong anomalous net source of carbon dioxide (0.5 Pg C yr(-1)) to the atmosphere and reversed the effect of four years of net ecosystem carbon sequestration. Our results suggest that productivity reduction in eastern and western Europe can be explained by rainfall deficit and extreme summer heat, respectively. We also find that ecosystem respiration decreased together with gross primary productivity, rather than accelerating with the temperature rise. Model results, corroborated by historical records of crop yields, suggest that such a reduction in Europe's primary productivity is unprecedented during the last century. An increase in future drought events could turn temperate ecosystems into carbon sources, contributing to positive carbon-climate feedbacks already anticipated in the tropics and at high latitudes.     

济南市水生态功能区划研究

水生态功能分区是基于对流域水生态系统的区域差异提出的一种分区方法.形成生态系统空间差异性的主要驱动因素是自然地理条件差异和人类活动影响.水生态分区是实现流域可持续发展的必要条件.通过分析济南市陆地和水生态系统特点,提出了水生态功能分区的基本原则、指标体系等.基于GIS分析技术,得到了济南市一级、二级和三级水生态功能分区.一级分区以集水区水文条件3大水系为依据,分别为黄河水系、小清河水系和徒骇马颊河水系,划分3大流域外加城区组成.二级水生态分区则以土壤类型及土地利用为主导因子.三级水生态功能分区则反映二组分区内功能差异,运用指标体系评价方法,对流域的生物多样性维持、生境维持、水环境支持、水资源支持4项生态功能进行评价,在GIS技术支持下,利用空间叠加方法,按主导功能类型完成流域内水生态功能三级分区.     

洪湖湿地野菰群落储碳、固碳功能研究

通过实地调研与实验室测定相结合的方法,研究洪湖湿地野菰（Zizania latifolia）的现存生物量和初级生产力,测算其碳储量、固碳能力,探讨其固碳潜力.结果得出：洪湖湿地野菰地上现存生物量平均0.75kg.m-2（0.52～0.96kg.m-2）,现存碳储量平均0.33kg.m-2（0.23～0.42kg.m-2）;地下部分的生物现存量平均为1.47kg.m-2,其碳储量平均为0.65kg.m-2,均约为地上2倍,因此野菰碳储量主要在地下部分;洪湖湿地野菰地上部分净初级生产力平均合计达0.75kg.m-2.a-1,加上地下部分,平均为1.2kg.m-2.a-1,固碳能力为0.53kg.m-2.a-1,高于全国陆地植被平均固碳能力和全球植被平均固碳能力.与中国不同生态系统的固碳能力相比,由于洪湖湿地野菰种群郁闭度较高,其平均固碳能力强于城市、河流等生态系统,明显高于其他湖泊生态系统.     

Scaling metabolism from organisms to ecosystems

Understanding energy and material fluxes through ecosystems is central to many questions in global change biology and ecology. Ecosystem respiration is a critical component of the carbon cycle and might be important in regulating biosphere response to global climate change. Here we derive a general model of ecosystem respiration based on the kinetics of metabolic reactions and the scaling of resource use by individual organisms. The model predicts that fluxes of CO2 and energy are invariant of ecosystem biomass, but are strongly influenced by temperature, variation in cellular metabolism and rates of supply of limiting resources (water and/or nutrients). Variation in ecosystem respiration within sites, as calculated from a network of CO2 flux towers, provides robust support for the model's predictions. However, data indicate that variation in annual flux between sites is not strongly dependent on average site temperature or latitude. This presents an interesting paradox with regard to the expected temperature dependence. Nevertheless, our model provides a basis for quantitatively understanding energy and material flux between the atmosphere and biosphere.     

中国水生生态系统中多环芳烃的生态毒性与生态风险研究进展

多环芳烃是我国环境中的主要污染物之一,对生态系统和人体健康具有严重危害。对中国水生生态系统中多环芳烃的生态毒性与生态风险研究进展进行了综述。从基因、细胞、个体、种群和群落等不同层次概括了多环芳烃的水生态毒性研究进展,介绍了水生生态系统多环芳烃生态风险的主要评价方法,综述了这些评价方法在中国的应用情况,分析了中国水生生态系统中多环芳烃的生态毒性与生态风险研究的存在问题与发展方向。多环芳烃的水生态毒性研究主要集中在水生生物种群与群落水平,基因与细胞水平的研究较少,而生态系统水平的研究基本为空白。在多环芳烃的水生生态风险方面,主要利用国外提出的一些评价方法,缺少自主创新的评价方法,探讨系统水平生态风险评价方法是中国研究人员可能的突破方向。     

Respiration as the main determinant of carbon balance in European forests

Carbon exchange between the terrestrial biosphere and the atmosphere is one of the key processes that need to be assessed in the context of the Kyoto Protocol. Several studies suggest that the terrestrial biosphere is gaining carbon, but these estimates are obtained primarily by indirect methods, and the factors that control terrestrial carbon exchange, its magnitude and primary locations, are under debate. Here we present data of net ecosystem carbon exchange, collected between 1996 and 1998 from 15 European forests, which confirm that many European forest ecosystems act as carbon sinks. The annual carbon balances range from an uptake of 6.6 tonnes of carbon per hectare per year to a release of nearly 1 t C ha(-1) yr(-1), with a large variability between forests. The data show a significant increase of carbon uptake with decreasing latitude, whereas the gross primary production seems to be largely independent of latitude. Our observations indicate that, in general, ecosystem respiration determines net ecosystem carbon exchange. Also, for an accurate assessment of the carbon balance in a particular forest ecosystem, remote sensing of the normalized difference vegetation index or estimates based on forest inventories may not be sufficient.     

Ecological responses to recent climate change

There is now ample evidence of the ecological impacts of recent climate change, from polar terrestrial to tropical marine environments. The responses of both flora and fauna span an array of ecosystems and organizational hierarchies, from the species to the community levels. Despite continued uncertainty as to community and ecosystem trajectories under global change, our review exposes a coherent pattern of ecological change across systems. Although we are only at an early stage in the projected trends of global warming, ecological responses to recent climate change are already clearly visible.     

Nitrogen limitation of microbial decomposition in a grassland under elevated CO2

Carbon accumulation in the terrestrial biosphere could partially offset the effects of anthropogenic CO2 emissions on atmospheric CO2. The net impact of increased CO2 on the carbon balance of terrestrial ecosystems is unclear, however, because elevated CO2 effects on carbon input to soils and plant use of water and nutrients often have contrasting effects on microbial processes. Here we show suppression of microbial decomposition in an annual grassland after continuous exposure to increased CO2 for five growing seasons. The increased CO2 enhanced plant nitrogen uptake, microbial biomass carbon, and available carbon for microbes. But it reduced available soil nitrogen, exacerbated nitrogen constraints on microbes, and reduced microbial respiration per unit biomass. These results indicate that increased CO2 can alter the interaction between plants and microbes in favour of plant utilization of nitrogen, thereby slowing microbial decomposition and increasing ecosystem carbon accumulation.     

森林碳循环模型方法研究进展

随着人们对森林生态系统碳循环活动各个过程研究的深入,森林碳循环模型逐渐发展起来。该模型利用先进的森林植被科学理论和计算机技术模拟森林碳循环的各个步骤,为森林碳循环研究提供更加清晰和有力的科学依据。本文论述了森林碳循环模型中斑块森林碳循环模型和区域尺度的陆地碳循环模型的主要特点,分别选取这两类模型中几个典型的森林碳循环模型评述每类森林生态系统碳循环模型的优缺点,通过对现有的森林生态系统碳循环模型的分析,探讨了未来森林生态系统碳循环模型的发展趋势。     

Chemical and biological trends during lake evolution in recently deglaciated terrain

As newly formed landscapes evolve, physical and biological changes occur that are collectively known as primary succession. Although succession is a fundamental concept in ecology, it is poorly understood in the context of aquatic environments. The prevailing view is that lakes become more enriched in nutrients as they age, leading to increased biological production. Here we report the opposite pattern of lake development, observed from the water chemistry of lakes that formed at various times within the past 10,000 years during glacial retreat at Glacier Bay, Alaska. The lakes have grown more dilute and acidic with time, accumulated dissolved organic carbon and undergone a transient rise in nitrogen concentration, all as a result of successional changes in surrounding vegetation and soils. Similar trends are evident from fossil diatom stratigraphy of lake sediment cores. These results demonstrate a tight hydrologic coupling between terrestrial and aquatic environments during the colonization of newly deglaciated landscapes, and provide a conceptual basis for mechanisms of primary succession in boreal lake ecosystems.     

降水量变化对内蒙古温带典型草原生态系统碳交换的影响

在全球变化的背景下,内蒙古草原生态系统的降水量可能增加或者减少.迄今,降水量的改变对该区域草地生态系统碳交换的影响我们还知之甚少.为此,本研究通过完全控水防雨棚,开展了降水梯度实验,探究该生态系统碳交换(ecosystem carbon exchange)随降水量变化的响应轨迹.结果表明:随着生长季降水量从100mm增加到500mm,净生态系统碳交换(net ecosystem exchange,NEE)、生态系统呼吸(ecosystem respiration,ER)和生态系统总生产力(gross ecosystem productivity,GEP)均显著提高,这些过程均表现为明显的非线性响应.NEE、ER和GEP的饱和点对应的降水量分别为350mm,200mm和275mm.从响应率的变化斜率看,降水量减少(275mm的处理)的效应显著强于降水量增加(275mm的处理)的效应.变异来源分析说明,随着降水量的改变,群落生物量是草原生态系统碳交换的首要影响因素,可以解释NEE、ER和GEP变异的30.89%、41.90%和40.60%,而土壤含水量和土壤温度只能解释NEE、ER和GEP变异的11.51%、7.78%和9.28%.上述结果为我们理解和预测未来降水变化对内蒙古温带典型草原生态系统碳交换的影响提供了依据.     

Increased forest ecosystem carbon and nitrogen storage from nitrogen rich bedrock

Nitrogen (N) limits the productivity of many ecosystems worldwide, thereby restricting the ability of terrestrial ecosystems to offset the effects of rising atmospheric CO(2) emissions naturally. Understanding input pathways of bioavailable N is therefore paramount for predicting carbon (C) storage on land, particularly in temperate and boreal forests. Paradigms of nutrient cycling and limitation posit that new N enters terrestrial ecosystems solely from the atmosphere. Here we show that bedrock comprises a hitherto overlooked source of ecologically available N to forests. We report that the N content of soils and forest foliage on N-rich metasedimentary rocks (350-950?mg?N?kg(-1)) is elevated by more than 50% compared with similar temperate forest sites underlain by N-poor igneous parent material (30-70?mg?N?kg(-1)). Natural abundance N isotopes attribute this difference to rock-derived N: (15)N/(14)N values for rock, soils and plants are indistinguishable in sites underlain by N-rich lithology, in marked contrast to sites on N-poor substrates. Furthermore, forests associated with N-rich parent material contain on average 42% more carbon in above-ground tree biomass and 60% more carbon in the upper 30?cm of the soil than similar sites underlain by N-poor rocks. Our results raise the possibility that bedrock N input may represent an important and overlooked component of ecosystem N and C cycling elsewhere.     

Spatial scaling of microbial eukaryote diversity

Patterns in the spatial distribution of organisms provide important information about mechanisms that regulate the diversity of life and the complexity of ecosystems. Although microorganisms may comprise much of the Earth's biodiversity and have critical roles in biogeochemistry and ecosystem functioning, little is known about their spatial diversification. Here we present quantitative estimates of microbial community turnover at local and regional scales using the largest spatially explicit microbial diversity data set available (> 10(6) sample pairs). Turnover rates were small across large geographical distances, of similar magnitude when measured within distinct habitats, and did not increase going from one vegetation type to another. The taxa-area relationship of these terrestrial microbial eukaryotes was relatively flat (slope z = 0.074) and consistent with those reported in aquatic habitats. This suggests that despite high local diversity, microorganisms may have only moderate regional diversity. We show how turnover patterns can be used to project taxa-area relationships up to whole continents. Taxa dissimilarities across continents and between them would strengthen these projections. Such data do not yet exist, but would be feasible to collect.     

Convergence across biomes to a common rain-use efficiency

Water availability limits plant growth and production in almost all terrestrial ecosystems. However, biomes differ substantially in sensitivity of aboveground net primary production (ANPP) to between-year variation in precipitation. Average rain-use efficiency (RUE; ANPP/precipitation) also varies between biomes, supposedly because of differences in vegetation structure and/or biogeochemical constraints. Here we show that RUE decreases across biomes as mean annual precipitation increases. However, during the driest years at each site, there is convergence to a common maximum RUE (RUE(max)) that is typical of arid ecosystems. RUE(max) was also identified by experimentally altering the degree of limitation by water and other resources. Thus, in years when water is most limiting, deserts, grasslands and forests all exhibit the same rate of biomass production per unit rainfall, despite differences in physiognomy and site-level RUE. Global climate models predict increased between-year variability in precipitation, more frequent extreme drought events, and changes in temperature. Forecasts of future ecosystem behaviour should take into account this convergent feature of terrestrial biomes.     

岩溶系统不同植被下土壤碳排放的温度效应

全球变化研究中土壤的呼吸排放等成为科学家们关注的热点问题,影响土壤碳排放的一个最主要的因子是温度。本文研究了岩溶系统中两种典型植被条件下温度的日变化动态及其系统碳排放过程,并对碳排放的温度效应进行了研究,结果表明土壤温度与岩溶系统碳排放有显著相关,尤以草地生态系统为甚。森林生态系统中,与土壤呼吸排放有显著相关的温度因素为土表温度,且为负相关,表明土壤呼吸排放对该温度的滞后响应。林地、草地生态系统中5cm～15cm土壤温度与土壤呼吸碳排放显示出正效应,表明土壤温度促进土壤呼吸的碳排放。同时,草地生态系统中表层泉水碳排释与土下5cm土温也有极显著相关。即岩溶生态系统碳排放具有极显著的温度效应。     

哀牢山中山湿性常绿阔叶林3种主要树种树干呼吸特征

森林生态系统是陆地生态系统中最重要的组成部分之一,是一个重要的碳库,树干呼吸是森林碳平衡的重要组成部分.为了研究哀牢山中山湿性常绿阔叶林的树干呼吸日变化和季节变化规律,以及它们与影响因子的关系,采用CO2红外气体分析法(IRGA),对哀牢山中山湿性常绿阔叶林3种主要树种(变色锥、黄心树和南洋木荷)的树干呼吸进行为期1a活体原位监测,还监测了干季(4月)和雨季(8月)黄心树和南洋木荷的树干呼吸日变化特征.研究发现,2个树种的树干呼吸、树干温度和空气温度日变化幅度并不大,3种树种的树干呼吸具有相同的季节规律,并且雨季的树干呼吸速率大于干季;不同树种以及同一树种不同径阶对温度的响应不一致;3种树种树干呼吸速率与胸径呈显著的正相关关系(R2=0.216).