On the natural history of the South American pepper frog,Leptodactylus labyrinthicus (Spix, 1824) (Anura: Leptodactylidae)

Some species of Leptodactylus of the L. pentadactylus group lay their eggs outside water but the tadpoles need to reach water to complete the larval phase; other species complete development in terrestrial nests. Here we present details of the reproduction of L. labyrinthicus in south‐eastern Brazil. The proportion of tadpoles and trophic eggs in aged egg clutches was determined, as well as the growth of the tadpoles while in the nest. The gut contents of tadpoles that were in egg clutches of frogs were analysed. Adult males did not differ from females in size and had hypertrophied forearms and an enlarged spine on the thumb. Reproduction was initiated with the first rains of August/September and extended to mid‐January. Calling and spawning occurred at permanent or temporary water bodies. The foam nests were built in excavated basins outside of, but close to the water. The male determined the place of the basin construction; after amplexus, the female completed the excavation. The amplexus was axillary. One female spent the day after spawning in the foam. The eggs were pale grey, the yolk averaging 2.3?mm in diameter. The mean number of eggs was 2101 per egg clutch. The number of tadpoles in individual nests varied between 0.05% and 11.40% in relation to the total laid eggs. The tadpoles entered water when rains flooded the basin. The tadpoles grew to 12 times the weight of an individual egg while in the nest; no nesting tadpole was beyond stage 25. The longest time we followed tadpoles in a nest was 25 days. Tadpoles were found preying upon eggs of three other frog species and upon conspecific eggs. Males fought by grasping each other in a belly‐to‐belly position; the powerful arms and the thumb spines represent weapons. Even though males can reach maturity in the season following birth, small size would prevent them from establishing their own territory. All the species of the L. pentadactylus group may build their foam nests within excavated basins. The basins may protect the eggs and embryos from cannibalistic tadpoles and may have an anti‐desiccation effect. In order to produce trophic eggs, the female may delay laying additional unfertilized eggs until after the male has abandoned the foam nest. Anuran eggs represent an important food item for tadpoles after they leave the nest.     

Nesting dynamic and sex allocation of the oil-collecting bee Centris (Heterocentris) analis (Fabricius, 1804) (Apidae: Centridini)

The study of nesting biology is an important biological aspect for both conservation and management, but despite this, only a few of the over 20,000 described bee species have had their nesting biology studied. The aim of this study was to describe and analyse the nesting biology and dynamic of an aggregation of the cavity-nesting bee species Centris analis during one generation. Twenty-eight females were marked and had their nesting activities documented, 64 nests were sampled, and 113 individuals emerged from these nests. An asymmetry in the sex allocation was observed for this species, and the sex ratio was male-biased in the first nests built. Nonetheless, considering an individual-level perspective, the females showed different strategies, with some of them producing more daughters, other females producing more sons, and still others producing an equal proportion. The productivity per female was low compared to that of other solitary bee species, and the females displayed an aggressive usurpation behaviour against conspecific females and performed an intraspecific parasitism. As the substrate used to nest is a limiting factor for this species, the usurpation behaviour may be an important strategy that could increase the chance of nesting. A few males used the nesting site as a resting place and the fidelity observed to this locale was high. This study provides new information about the natural history of this bee species, which is an important pollinator of both crops and native plant species.     

Two nesting behaviours and life history of a subsocial African dungrolling beetle,Scarabaeus catenatus (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae)

Nesting behaviour of a large-sized dung beetle, Scarabaeus catenatus (Gerstaecker), was observed at the Tsavo West National Park, south-eastern Kenya. Although this species is taxonomically a member of a dung-roller group (that is, subfamily Scarabaeinae), it had not only a rolling behaviour but also a tunneller behaviour for nesting. In the former case, the scarab rolled a chunk or a ball of dung some distance (0·5–15·5m) away from the dung pat and buried it under the ground. In the latter case, it dug a tunnel near the dung pat (0–1 m) and transported several pieces of dung into the burrow. In both cases, brood nests were completed by a female alone or by male-female co-operation. Four days after dung burial, the female made one to four brood balls out of buried dung, in each of which she deposited an egg. On the other hand, the male left the nest soon after the female completed oviposition. Even after oviposition, the female stayed in the nest and cared for her progeny until they emerged. This indicates that S. catenatus is subsocial. A major source of offspring mortality was likely to be predation by driver ants (Dorylus sp.). Most females seemed to breed one time in each of two or more successive rainy seasons.     

Architecture,composition and placement of nests of the Cipo Canastero Asthenes luizae (Aves: Furnariidae), a bird endemic to Brazilian mountaintops

Cipo Canastero (Asthenes luizae) is a bird endemic to Brazilian mountaintops, inhabiting rock outcrop habitats of the campos rupestres in the southern Espinhaço Range. Available data about Cipo Canastero’s breeding biology are scarce, incomplete or inconsistent. All nests found to date were built in the plant Vellozia nivea. Based on 84 nests found from 2009 to 2017 in four sites at Serra do Cipó, we described in detail their nesting habits focusing on three groups of characters: nest architecture, composition, and placement. Also, we described nest building. Our major new findings on the nesting habits of A. luizae were: three nest layers distinguishable, inner lining covering the entire nest interior, tunnels and tubes are absent, and the nest sites are not restricted to V. nivea. We recorded a wide range of nest sites, from ground, grasses and rupicolous bromeliads to shrubs and trees, including at least 30 supporting-plant species. Nest supports varied among study sites. Nest building lasted 22 days (one nest) and was done by both members of the pair. Our data can be useful for species conservation and contribute to the knowledge of the natural history of the genus Asthenes.     

The evolution of nest building and communal nesting in Ageniellini (Insecta: Hymenoptera: Pompilidae)

Pompilid wasps prey upon spiders and use a single spider per nest cell. The majority of species dig simple burrows in the soil in which to cache their spider, on which an egg is laid. The nest is not revisited, but another nest is prepared elsewhere. However, members of the tribe Ageniellini show much diversity in nesting behaviour. Species of the genus Ageniella nest in pre-existing cavities in the soil, closing off their cells with bits of debris. Most other Ageniellini that have been studied carry water to make mud pellets, from which ovoid nest cells are made. Usually a series of such cells is made in close proximity, often under loose bark or stones or in hollow stems. A few species make free nests above ground, usually in protected places or with thick mud walls. In some cases nest sites are known to be re-occupied by members of successive generations. Several species are known to nest communally, co-operating in nest defense and in cell building. In many ways the evolution of nesting behaviour in this group parallels that in the mud-using Vespidae, but the use of a single prey per cell precludes development of progressive provisioning and of eusociality similar to that of many Vespidae.     

Nesting behaviour and provisioning in Bembix merceti and Bembix zonata (Hymenoptera: Crabronidae)

We studied the nesting behaviour and provisioning of Bembix merceti Parker and Bembix zonata Klug during three flight seasons (1993–1995). The females of B. merceti capture Diptera from seven different families to feed their larvae. Provisioning is progressive. The females provide a greater number of prey over subsequent days during larval growth. This activity begins increasingly earlier and lasts for longer, and prey capture is increasingly faster. Although the activity of the females is greater during the middle hours of the day, towards the end of each day the number of prey per wasp increases slightly and the duration of provisioning flights is reduced. Regarding Bembix merceti, we also report on nest structure and excavation as well as about the different natural enemies of these wasps. The data recorded for B. zonata refer to nest digging and structure, the wasps' natural enemies and their provisioning strategies, which in general are similar to those seen for the females of B. merceti.     

Mating behaviour in two closely related sympatric species of Philonthus (Coleoptera: Staphylinidae)

Summary

The intra-specific mating behaviour of two closely related sympatric staphylinid beetles, Philonthus cephalotes (Grav.) and P. sordidus (Grav.) is described in detail. Mating is essentially similar in the two species, although differing in the duration of copulation (1·7 min in cephalotes, 44·6 min in sordidus), and consists of four phases (A)-(D); (A) pre-copulatory phase, (1) examination of female abdominal apex by male, (2) examination of male abdominal apex by female, (3) prolonged examination of female by male, (4) mounting by male (5) extrusion of male genitalia; (B) copulatory phase; (C) terminal phase; and (D) post-copulatory phase.

An attempt to test the role of species specific patterns of peg setae, occurring on the genitalia of males, as a tactile signalling system was made by observation of inter-specific interactions between males and females of the two species. Under the trial conditions inter-specific intromission did not occur and behaviour was predominantly aggressive. Evidence suggests that signals during the early stages of an encounter between the sexes of different species are generally sufficient to deter further courtship. In two instances courtship reached a more advanced stage and here the patterns of peg setae on the male genitalia may have come into play, operating as a signalling device.     

Structural comparisons of isomorphic breeding nests between closely allied spiders Cheiracanthium japonicum and Cheiracanthium lascivum (Araneae: Eutichuridae)

Closely allied spider species Cheiracanthium japonicum and Cheiracanthium lascivum make a closed breeding nest for egg laying and parental care. The nest provides the internal climatic stability required for suitable development of eggs and the physical durability required for protection against intruders. Although the breeding nests of these two spiders are quite similar in structure and appearance, their climatic stability and physical durability seem to be empirically different. Such physical features of the nests of these two spiders were compared based on a balance between the inner and outer air temperature and humidity of the nest as well as on the amount and size of spider silks lining the nest. In addition, the female’s relative energy allocation to egg production versus nest construction was examined based on the number or weight of eggs versus the climatic stability and physical durability of the nest. According to the results, the stability of temperature and humidity was maintained better in the breeding nest of C. japonicum than in that of C. lascivum. Furthermore, the nest of C. japonicum was more strongly constructed, with a greater volume and size of silks, than that of C. lascivum. On the other hand, the number or weight of eggs in relation to the female’s body weight in C. japonicum was smaller than that in C. lascivum. These results suggested that the reproductive effort towards nest construction for the purpose of egg and juvenile care in C. japonicum was larger than that in C. lascivum. In contrast, the effort towards egg production in C. japonicum was smaller than that in C. lascivum. Consequently, it is likely that the structural differences in breeding nests between these two spiders are responsible for the discrepancies in the female’s relative energy allocation to nest construction.     

Satellite flies (Leucophora personata,Diptera: Anthomyiidae) and other dipteran parasites of the communal bee Andrena agilissima (Hymenoptera: Andrenidae) on the island of Elba,Italy

Solitary and presocial aculueate Hymenoptera are parasitized by a range of dipteran species in the families Anthomyiidae, Bombyliidae, Conopidae, Phoridae, and Sarcophagidae that are likely to impact on their hosts. We undertook a study over several years of a univoltine and communal bee, Andrena agilissima, and its main dipteran parasites, in particular the satellite fly Leucophora personata (Diptera: Anthomyiidae). Behavioural and ecological data were collected from one nesting aggregation of the host bee on the island of Elba, Italy, from 1993 to 2003, and from a foraging site of the bee, ca 5?km from the nesting aggregation. Other Diptera associated with A. agilissima at the field site were the bee fly Bombylius fimbriatus (Bombyliidae), the conopid fly Zodion cinereum (Conopidae), and the scuttle fly Megaselia andrenae (Phoridae). The phenology of the Diptera broadly overlapped with that of their host across the season of activity (end of April and all of May). Diurnal activity patterns differed slightly; L. personata in particular was active at the host's nesting site before A. agilissima. Female satellite flies also showed a range of behaviours in gaining entry to a host nest. We summarize published data on this and other Leucophora species that parasitize Andrena host bees. Host bees returning to their nests occasionally undertook zig‐zag flight manoeuvres if followed by a satellite fly that were generally successful in evading the fly. Satellite flies that entered a nest, presumably to oviposit, were less likely to remain therein if another host bee entered the same nest, suggesting that one advantage to communal nesting for this host is a reduction in brood cell parasitism by L. personata. We provide the first clear evidence for parasitism by a Zodion of any Andrena host. Both L. personata and M. andrenae concentrated their parasitic activities in the zone of the host nesting aggregation with highest nest densities. Three of the Diptera, L. personata, B. fimbriatus, and Z. cinereum, seemed to have extremely low rates of parasitism whilst that of M. andrenae appeared low. Though they have refined parasitic behaviour that allows them to gain entry into host nests (L. personata, B. fimbriatus, and M. andrenae) or to parasitize adults (Z. cinereum), these parasites seem not to impact upon the dynamics of the host A. agilissima at the nesting aggregation, and the host possesses traits to reduce parasitism.     

Breeding behavior of the Plumbeous Vireo in New Mexico

The Plumbeous Vireo ( Vireo plumbeus ) is a poorly studied songbird species that breeds within the interior western United States and Mexico. We studied the breeding behavior of Plumbeous Vireos within pinyon-juniper habitats in northeastern New Mexico in 1996 and 1997. Over both years we located and monitored 40 nests and conducted behavioral observations throughout the nesting cycle. From these observations we described and compared basic behavioral traits of male and female vireos during their nest-building, egg-laying, incubation, and nestling stages, and their response to potential predators near the nest. Male vireos displayed potential nest sites to females, but the females selected the site to be used and built most of the nest. Vireos often did not initiate egg-laying until 2-3 d after nest completion. The female tended to incubate eggs and brood nestlings more than the male, but both parents contributed equally in provisioning the young. Brown-headed Cowbirds ( Molothrus ater ) parasitized 77% of nests in 1996, 63% in 1997, and parasitism was the primary cause of nest failure in this population. The conspicuousness of vireos around the nest, particularly during the nest-building stage, may contribute to high parasitism levels. Vireo aggression near the nest may also act as a cue to help cowbirds locate nests.     

Habitat,egg‐laying behaviour,eggs and tadpoles of four sympatric species of Pseudopaludicola (Anura,Leiuperidae)

In contrast to most leiuperid frogs, Pseudopaludicola falcipes does not lay eggs in foam nests; this could represent a reversion to the primitive state. We found that in four other Pseudopaludicola species, eggs were also not embedded in foam nests and had a well‐defined outermost jelly layer. The females also constantly moved or dived and males lacked vigorous “wiping/kicking” leg motions while eggs were being laid, features that make foam nesting difficult. The tadpoles of three species have two gaps in the marginal papillae along the lower labium and two posterior rows of labial teeth; the tadpoles of one species had three gaps and three rows, a pattern resembling that of some Physalaemus (Leiuperidae) species. Our data on tadpole morphology and reproductive behaviour do not allow us to rule out the paraphyletic nature of Physalaemus in relation to Pseudopaludicola but they provide some support against the “foam‐loss hypothesis” in Pseudopaludicola.     

Notes on the natural history of Stizus perrisii ibericus Beaumont (Hymenoptera: Sphecidae)

A study of the biology of Stizus perrisii ibericus revealed some aspects about the behaviour of males, the nesting behaviour of females, and larval development. The slow mass provisioning of this species is compared with the provisioning behaviour of S. continuus and S. pulcherrimus. Cocoons are constructed in seven stages although, compared with other species, there are differences in the duration of each stage. Natural enemies of the wasp include miltogrammine flies, several cuckoo wasps, and velvet ants.     

Copulatory courtship and morphology of genitalic coupling in seven Phyllophaga species (Coleoptera: Melolonthidae)

Males in six of seven species of Phyllophaga perform apparent courtship behaviour during copulation. As predicted by the hypothesis that such copulatory courtship is under sexual selection by female choice, behavioural details differ between species. The modified male abdominal sternites, which rub against the female's pygidium during copulation and whose morphology also differs between species, and the flattened, setose tarsi of males of one species probably function as contact courtship devices during copulatory courtship. Observations of events inside copulating beetles were made through the semi-transparent abdominal sternites of females and male genitalia in three species. They revealed cryptic genitalic thrusting behaviour of male genitalia within the female which occurred even when there was little or no external movement of the male genitalia. Dissections of pairs frozen in copula demonstrated that males transfer large quantities of material to females during copulation that is not physically related to sperm transfer. The type of material varied between species. In at least two species most of the transfer apparently occurred after sperm transfer. The possibility that some male genitalic structures function as holdfasts and/or stimulatory devices was suggested by their positions relative to female structures, and/or their movements within the female. Portions of male genitalia with strong bristles tended to lie against setose or more heavily sclerotized portions of the female reproductive duct. Some portions of female genitalia which vary between species seem ill-designed to exclude the genitalia of cross-specific males. The female reproductive tract is partially everted during copulation in one species.     

Habitat selection and nest construction behaviour in some Afrotropical species of Ammophila (Hymenoptera: Sphecidae)

Nest construction behaviour and nest site selection are described for seven species of Afrotropical Ammophila.

Four species were atypical in their nest siting. Ammophila beniniensis selected shaded sites in well vegetated habitats, A. vulcania selected small clumps of vegetation in otherwise open habitats. A. insignis nested in vertical banks, old animal burrows and caves. A. braunsi is unique amongst Ammophila in its use of abandoned burrows of other wasps in non-friable clay soils. A. ferrugineipes, A. dolichodera and A. dolichocephala nested mostly in open habitats.

Methods of soil waste disposal, sealing of nests and their final coverage, differed interspecifically, in some cases intraspecifically, but often apparently in response to the habitat.

Temperature conditions, affected by habitat, influenced the depth to which nests were dug by some species. A. insignis switched sites in response to seasonal changes in temperature regimes in vertical banks.

The existence in particular species of both primitive and advanced aspects of nesting behaviour questions their use in assessing the evolutionary status of these species.     

Breeding behaviour and mating success of Phyllomedusa rohdei (Anura,Hylidae) in south‐eastern Brazil

Observations on the courtship behaviour, mating behaviour and mating success of a leaf‐frog, Phyllomedusa rohdei, population were conducted in a temporary flooded site of the Atlantic Forest, south‐eastern Brazil. We did not find any influence of size and body weight on male mating success across three scales: seasonal, nightly chorus and local groups (males found within 1?m of a mated pair). In addition, no evidence was found that female Phyllomedusa rohdei exhibit overt mate choice. The formation of mated pairs in P. rohdei occurred because males moved toward the females, rather than reverse. The only variable that was significantly related to male mating success was the number of nights of participation in chorus activity. Besides calling tactics, males showed active searching behaviour. There was no evidence of size‐ and mass‐assortative mating, and a high percentage of fertilization at all size and mass ratios of males and females was observed. Clutches in this species are produced in the same manner found in others members of Phyllomedusa; a purse‐like nest is made over water by folding a leaf around the egg mass (embryos and fluid‐filled capsules). Finally, we supply a list of several studies that examined the relationship between size or mass ratios of males and females in amplexus and its influence on fertilization rate, and show that size‐assortative mating in anurans is inconsistent (present in some species but not in other).     

A preliminary study of nest structure and composition of the weaver ant Polyrhachis (Cyrtomyrma) delecta (Hymenoptera: Formicidae)

Polyrhachis weaver ants build their nests from vegetation bound together using silk produced by their larvae. Here we provide a pilot study of the composition and the physical structure of three arboreal silk nests of Polyrhachis (Cyrtomyrma) delecta based on examination of three colonies. We found broadly similar nest architecture and size of the nests with each containing six or seven identifiable chambers, and describe the distribution of ants of different castes and life stages between them. We also note the construction of silk ‘girder’ structures, which spanned larger chambers, and we hypothesize that these provide additional strength to the internal nest structure. This study highlights the importance of more detailed investigation of the internal nest structure and composition in Polyrhachis, and other weaver ant species, which will help to develop our understanding of this specialized form of nest construction and nesting habits in a diverse group of ants.     

Nesting and brood-rearing characteristics of Chukars in west central Idaho

We analyzed attributes from 23 nests (10 renests) and 46 brood locations of radio-marked Chukars ( Alectoris chukar ) in the lower Salmon River canyon of west central Idaho in 1995 and 1996. Nesting effort was 100%, apparent nest success was 45%, and estimated time from destruction or abandonment of a nest to initiation of laying a subsequent nest averaged 13 ± 5 days s x . Average clutch size for 1st nests (14.5 ± 1.0) was greater ( P = 0.017) than renests (10.4 ± 1.1). Cover types used by nesting Chukars included grass/forb (48% of nests), rock (43%), and shrub (9%), whereas the most common structure used for nests was rock outcrop (57%). Chukars did not use yellow starthistle ( Centaurea solstitialis ) habitats differently from what was expected ( P = 0.08) for nesting, but birds with broods selected areas with less starthistle ( P < 0.001). Chukar broods, which averaged 12.0 ± 1.1 chicks, used shrub and grass/forb cover types approximately equally (43% and 47% of locations, respectively) but rock habitats infrequently (11%).