Cloning and expression of human and rat D1 dopamine receptors

The importance of the dopaminergic system in brain function has been emphasized by its association with neurological and psychiatric disorders such as Parkinson's disease and schizophrenia. On the basis of their biochemical and pharmacological characteristics, dopamine receptors are classified into D1 and D2 subtypes. As the most abundant dopamine receptor in the central nervous system, D1 receptors seem to mediate some behavioural responses, modulate activity of D2 dopamine receptors, and regulate neuron growth and differentiation. The D dopamine receptor has been cloned by low-stringency screening. We report here the cloning of human and rat D1 dopamine receptors by applying an approach based on the polymerase chain reaction. The cloned human D1 dopamine receptor has been characterized on the basis of four criteria: the deduced amino-acid sequence, which reveals that it is a G protein-coupled receptor; the tissue distribution of its messenger RNA, which is compatible with that of the D1 dopamine receptor; its pharmacological profile when transfected into COS-7 cells; and its ability to stimulate the accumulation of cyclic AMP in human 293 cells.     

Cloning of the gene for a human dopamine D4 receptor with high affinity for the antipsychotic clozapine.

Dopamine receptors belong to the family of G protein-coupled receptors. On the basis of the homology between these receptors, three different dopamine receptors (D1, D2, D3) have been cloned. Dopamine receptors are primary targets for drugs used in the treatment of psychomotor disorders such as Parkinson's disease and schizophrenia. In the management of socially withdrawn and treatment-resistant schizophrenics, clozapine is one of the most favoured antipsychotics because it does not cause tardive dyskinesia. Clozapine, however, has dissociation constants for binding to D2 and D3 that are 4 to 30 times the therapeutic free concentration of clozapine in plasma water. This observation suggests the existence of other types of dopamine receptors which are more sensitive to clozapine. Here we report the cloning of a gene that encodes such a receptor (D4). The D4 receptor gene has high homology to the human dopamine D2 and D3 receptor genes. The pharmacological characteristics of this receptor resembles that of the D2 and D3 receptors, but its affinity for clozapine is one order of magnitude higher. Recognition and characterization of this clozapine neuroleptic site may prove useful in the design of new types of drugs.     

Distinct functions of the two isoforms of dopamine D2 receptors

Signalling through dopamine D2 receptors governs physiological functions related to locomotion, hormone production and drug abuse. D2 receptors are also known targets of antipsychotic drugs that are used to treat neuropsychiatric disorders such as schizophrenia. By a mechanism of alternative splicing, the D2 receptor gene encodes two molecularly distinct isoforms, D2S and D2L, previously thought to have the same function. Here we show that these receptors have distinct functions in vivo; D2L acts mainly at postsynaptic sites and D2S serves presynaptic autoreceptor functions. The cataleptic effects of the widely used antipsychotic haloperidol are absent in D2L-deficient mice. This suggests that D2L is targeted by haloperidol, with implications for treatment of neuropsychiatric disorders. The absence of D2L reveals that D2S inhibits D1 receptor-mediated functions, uncovering a circuit of signalling interference between dopamine receptors.     

Molecular cloning and characterization of a novel dopamine receptor (D3) as a target for neuroleptics

A dopamine receptor has been characterized which differs in its pharmacology and signalling system from the D1 or D2 receptor and represents both an autoreceptor and a postsynaptic receptor. The D3 receptor is localized to limbic areas of the brain, which are associated with cognitive, emotional and endocrine functions. It seems to mediate some of the effects of antipsychotic drugs and drugs used against Parkinson's disease, that were previously thought to interact only with D2 receptors.     

Human dopamine D1 receptor encoded by an intronless gene on chromosome 5

Receptors for dopamine have been classified into two functional types, D1 and D2. They belong to the family of receptors acting through G (or guanine nucleotide-binding) proteins. D2 receptors inhibit adenylyl cyclase, but D1 receptors stimulate adenylyl cyclase and activate cyclic AMP-dependent protein kinases. Dopamine D1 and D2 receptors are targets of drug therapy in many psychomotor disorders, including Parkinson's disease and schizophrenia, and may also have a role in drug addiction and alcoholism. D1 receptors regulate neuron growth and differentiation, influence behaviour and modify dopamine D2 receptor-mediated events. We report here the cloning of the D1 receptor gene, which resides on an intronless region on the long arm of chromosome 5, near two other members of the G-linked receptor family. The expressed protein, encoded by 446 amino acids, binds drugs with affinities identical to the native human D1 receptor. The presence of a D1 receptor gene restriction fragment length polymorphism will be helpful for future disease linkage studies.     

Cloning of the gene for a human dopamine D5 receptor with higher affinity for dopamine than D1.

Dopamine receptors belong to a superfamily of receptors that exert their biological effects through guanine nucleotide-binding (G) proteins. Two main dopamine receptor subtypes have been identified, D1 and D2, which differ in their pharmacological and biochemical characteristics. D1 stimulates adenylyl cyclase activity, whereas D2 inhibits it. Both receptors are primary targets for drugs used to treat many psychomotor diseases, including Parkinson's disease and schizophrenia. Whereas the dopamine D1 receptor has been cloned, biochemical and behavioural data indicate that dopamine D1-like receptors exist which either are not linked to adenylyl cyclase or display different pharmacological activities. We report here the cloning of a gene encoding a 477-amino-acid protein with strong homology to the cloned D1 receptor. The receptor, called D5, binds drugs with a pharmacological profile similar to that of the cloned D1 receptor, but displays a 10-fold higher affinity for the endogenous agonist, dopamine. As with D1, the dopamine D5 receptor stimulates adenylyl cyclase activity. Northern blot and in situ hybridization analyses reveal that the receptor is neuron-specific, localized primarily within limbic regions of the brain; no messenger RNA was detected in kidney, liver, heart or parathyroid gland. The existence of a dopamine D1-like receptor with these characteristics had not been predicted and may represent an alternative pathway for dopamine-mediated events and regulation of D2 receptor activity.     

Cloning and expression of a rat D2 dopamine receptor cDNA

Dopamine receptors are classified into D1 and D2 subtypes on the basis of their pharmacological and biochemical characteristics. The D2 dopamine receptor has been implicated in the pathophysiology and treatment of movement disorders, schizophrenia and drug addiction. The D2 dopamine receptor interacts with guanine nucleotide-binding proteins to induce second messenger systems. Other members of the family of receptors that are coupled to G proteins share a significant similarity in primary amino-acid sequence and exhibit an archetypical topology predicted to consist of seven putative transmembrane domains. We have taken advantage of the expected nucleotide sequence similarities among members of this gene family to isolate genes coding for new receptors. Using the hamster beta 2-adrenergic receptor gene as a hybridization probe we have isolated related genes including a cDNA encoding the rat D2 dopamine receptor. This receptor has been characterized on the basis of three criteria: the deduced amino-acid sequence which reveals that it is a member of the family of G-protein-coupled receptors; the tissue distribution of the mRNA which parallels that of the D2 dopamine receptor; and the pharmacological profile of mouse fibroblast cells transfected with the cDNA.     

Killer cell immunoglobulin-like receptor 3DL1-mediated recognition of human leukocyte antigen B

Members of the killer cell immunoglobulin-like receptor (KIR) family, a large group of polymorphic receptors expressed on natural killer (NK) cells, recognize particular peptide-laden human leukocyte antigen (pHLA) class I molecules and have a pivotal role in innate immune responses. Allelic variation and extensive polymorphism within the three-domain KIR family (KIR3D, domains D0-D1-D2) affects pHLA binding specificity and is linked to the control of viral replication and the treatment outcome of certain haematological malignancies. Here we describe the structure of a human KIR3DL1 receptor bound to HLA-B*5701 complexed with a self-peptide. KIR3DL1 clamped around the carboxy-terminal end of the HLA-B*5701 antigen-binding cleft, resulting in two discontinuous footprints on the pHLA. First, the D0 domain, a distinguishing feature of the KIR3D family, extended towards β2-microglobulin and abutted a region of the HLA molecule with limited polymorphism, thereby acting as an 'innate HLA sensor' domain. Second, whereas the D2-HLA-B*5701 interface exhibited a high degree of complementarity, the D1-pHLA-B*5701 contacts were suboptimal and accommodated a degree of sequence variation both within the peptide and the polymorphic region of the HLA molecule. Although the two-domain KIR (KIR2D) and KIR3DL1 docked similarly onto HLA-C and HLA-B respectively, the corresponding D1-mediated interactions differed markedly, thereby providing insight into the specificity of KIR3DL1 for discrete HLA-A and HLA-B allotypes. Collectively, in association with extensive mutagenesis studies at the KIR3DL1-pHLA-B*5701 interface, we provide a framework for understanding the intricate interplay between peptide variability, KIR3D and HLA polymorphism in determining the specificity requirements of this essential innate interaction that is conserved across primate species.     

Alternative splicing directs the expression of two D2 dopamine receptor isoforms

Dopamine receptors are classified into D1 and D2 subtypes on the basis of their pharmacological properties and the intracellular responses they mediate. The cerebral D2 dopamine receptor is the target of drugs used to alleviate the main symptoms of schizophrenia. Although it is considered to be a single molecular entity, there is evidence that multiple D2-receptor subtypes exist. A complementary DNA encoding a D2 receptor has recently been cloned and the deduced 415-amino-acid sequence indicates that it belongs to the large superfamily of receptors coupled to G proteins, and that its topology consists of seven transmembrane domains. In this family, the genes are frequently without introns and each is believed to encode a unique polypeptide product. Here we show that the gene for the D2 receptor produces two receptor isoforms by alternative messenger RNA splicing, providing a route to receptor diversity in this family. One isoform corresponds to the D2(415) receptor, but the second contains an additional sequence encoding a 29-amino-acid fragment, defining a novel D2(444) receptor isoform. Expression of the two isoforms is tissue-specific, and both are regulated by guanyl nucleotides. As the extra sequence is located within a putative cytoplasmic loop that binds to G proteins, the two isoforms might interact with different G proteins and thereby initiate distinct intracellular signals.     

Hypervariable 'minisatellite' regions in human DNA

The human genome contains many dispersed tandem-repetitive 'minisatellite' regions detected via a shared 10-15-base pair 'core' sequence similar to the generalized recombination signal (chi) of Escherichia coli. Many minisatellites are highly polymorphic due to allelic variation in repeat copy number in the minisatellite. A probe based on a tandem-repeat of the core sequence can detect many highly variable loci simultaneously and can provide an individual-specific DNA 'fingerprint' of general use in human genetic analysis.     

Molecular cloning and expression of the gene for a human D1 dopamine receptor

The diverse physiological actions of dopamine are mediated by its interaction with two basic types of G protein-coupled receptor, D1 and D2, which stimulate and inhibit, respectively, the enzyme adenylyl cyclase. Alterations in the number or activity of these receptors may be a contributory factor in diseases such as Parkinson's disease and schizophrenia. Here we describe the isolation and characterization of the gene encoding a human D1 dopamine receptor. The coding region of this gene is intronless, unlike the gene encoding the D2 dopamine receptor. The D1 receptor gene encodes a protein of 446 amino acids having a predicted relative molecular mass of 49,300 and a transmembrane topology similar to that of other G protein-coupled receptors. Transient or stable expression of the cloned gene in host cells established specific ligand binding and functional activity characteristic of a D1 dopamine receptor coupled to stimulation of adenylyl cyclase. Northern blot analysis and in situ hybridization revealed that the messenger RNA for this receptor is most abundant in caudate, nucleus accumbens and olfactory tubercle, with little or no mRNA detectable in substantia nigra, liver, kidney, or heart. Several observations from this work in conjunction with results from other studies are consistent with the idea that other D1 dopamine receptor subtypes may exist.     

A single amino-acid difference confers major pharmacological variation between human and rodent 5-HT1B receptors.

Neuropsychiatric disorders such as anxiety, depression, migraine, vasospasm and epilepsy may involve different subtypes of the 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT) receptor. The 1B subtype, which has a unique pharmacology, was first identified in rodent brain. But a similar receptor could not be detected in human brain, suggesting the absence in man of a receptor with equivalent function. Recently a human receptor gene was isolated (designated 5-HT1B receptor, 5-HT1D beta receptor, or S12 receptor) which shares 93% identity of the deduced protein sequence with rodent 5-HT1B receptors. Although this receptor is identical to rodent 5-HT1B receptors in binding to 5-HT, it differs profoundly in binding to many drugs. Here we show that replacement of a single amino acid in the human receptor (threonine at residue 355) with a corresponding asparagine found in rodent 5-HT1B receptors renders the pharmacology of the receptors essentially identical. This demonstrates that the human gene does indeed encode a 1B receptor, which is likely to have the same biological functions as the rodent 5-HT1B receptor. In addition, these findings show that minute sequence differences between homologues of the same receptor from different species can cause large pharmacological variation. Thus, drug-receptor interactions should not be extrapolated from animal to human species without verification.     

Dopamine activation of the arachidonic acid cascade as a basis for D1/D2 receptor synergism

Understanding the actions of the neurotransmitter dopamine in the brain is important in view of its roles in neuropsychiatric illnesses. Dopamine D1 receptors, which stimulate both adenylyl cyclase and phospholipase C, and D2 receptors, which inhibit them, can nevertheless act synergistically to produce many electrophysiological and behavioral responses. Because this functional synergism can occur at the level of single neurons, another, as yet unidentified, signalling pathway activated by dopamine has been hypothesized. We report here that in Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells transfected with the D2 receptor complementary DNA, D2 agonists potently enhanced arachidonic acid release, provided that such release has been initiated by stimulating constitutive purinergic receptors or by increasing intracellular Ca2+. In CHO cells expressed D1 receptors, D1 agonists exert no such effect. When D1 and D2 receptors are coexpressed, however, activation of both subtypes results in a marked synergistic potentiation of arachidonic acid release. The numerous actions of arachidonic acid and its metabolites in neuronal signal transduction suggest that facilitation of its release may be implicated in dopaminergic responses, such as feedback inhibition mediated by D2 autoreceptors, and may constitute a molecular basis for D1/D2 receptor synergism.     

Control of visual cortical signals by prefrontal dopamine

The prefrontal cortex is thought to modulate sensory signals in posterior cortices during top-down attention, but little is known about the underlying neural circuitry. Experimental and clinical evidence indicate that prefrontal dopamine has an important role in cognitive functions, acting predominantly through D1 receptors. Here we show that dopamine D1 receptors mediate prefrontal control of signals in the visual cortex of macaques (Macaca mulatta). We pharmacologically altered D1-receptor-mediated activity in the frontal eye field of the prefrontal cortex and measured the effect on the responses of neurons in area V4 of the visual cortex. This manipulation was sufficient to enhance the magnitude, the orientation selectivity and the reliability of V4 visual responses to an extent comparable with the known effects of top-down attention. The enhancement of V4 signals was restricted to neurons with response fields overlapping the part of visual space affected by the D1 receptor manipulation. Altering either D1- or D2-receptor-mediated frontal eye field activity increased saccadic target selection but the D2 receptor manipulation did not enhance V4 signals. Our results identify a role for D1 receptors in mediating the control of visual cortical signals by the prefrontal cortex and suggest how processing in sensory areas could be altered in mental disorders involving prefrontal dopamine.     

Multiple D2 dopamine receptors produced by alternative RNA splicing

Dopamine receptor belong to a large class of neurotransmitter and hormone receptors that are linked to their signal transduction pathways through guanine nucleotide binding regulatory proteins (G proteins). Pharmacological, biochemical and physiological criteria have been used to define two subcategories of dopamine receptors referred to as D1 and D2. D1 receptors activate adenylyl cyclase and are coupled with the Gs regulatory protein. By contrast, activation of D2 receptors results in various responses including inhibition of adenylyl cyclase, inhibition of phosphatidylinositol turnover, increase in K+ channel activity and inhibition of Ca2+ mobilization. The G protein(s) linking the D2 receptors to these responses have not been identified, although D2 receptors have been shown to both copurify and functionally reconstitute with both Gi and Go related proteins. The diversity of responses elicited by D2-receptor activation could reflect the existence of multiple D2 receptor subtypes, the identification of which is facilitated by the recent cloning of a complementary DNA encoding a rat D2 receptor. This receptor exhibits considerable amino-acid homology with other members of the G protein-coupled receptor superfamily. Here we report the identification and cloning of a cDNA encoding an RNA splice variant of the rat D2 receptor cDNA. This cDNA codes for a receptor isoform which is predominantly expressed in the brain and contains an additional 29 amino acids in the third cytoplasmic loop, a region believed to be involved in G protein coupling.     

Localization of D-2 dopamine receptors to intrinsic striatal neurones by quantitative autoradiography

Recent work with positron emission and single photon emission computed tomography has demonstrated the feasibility of studying striatal dopamine receptors in the living human brain. For the proper interpretation of these studies in normal and diseased states, the cellular localization of these receptors must be definitively established. It has been claimed, on the basis of receptor binding studies with tissue homogenates in rats, that 30-50% of striatal D-2 dopamine receptors are located on axons or terminals of the corticostriatal pathway. This finding has been incorporated into major reviews and classifications of dopamine receptors. The recent development of quantitative autoradiographic methods for diffusible ligands has facilitated the study of neurotransmitter receptors in cytoarchitechtonically intact tissue. Because this technique provides the necessary anatomic resolution that is lacking in homogenate binding studies, we have used it to re-examine the localization of striatal dopamine receptors. Here we present evidence that D-2 receptors are located exclusively on kainic acid-sensitive intrinsic neuronal elements in the striatum. We report that discrete cortical ablation does not alter 3H-spiperone binding to rat striatum and thus our results do not support the existence of D-2 dopamine receptors on the terminals of the corticostriatal pathway.     

Molecular cloning of the receptor for human antidiuretic hormone.

Antidiuresis, the recovery of water from the lumen of the renal collecting tubule, is regulated by the hypothalamic release of antidiuretic hormone (ADH), which binds to specific receptors on renal collecting tubule cells, stimulates adenylyl cyclase and promotes the cyclic AMP-mediated incorporation of water pores into the luminal surface of these cells. We report here the isolation of the human ADH receptor gene using a genomic expression cloning approach. The gene was used to clone the complementary DNA from a human renal library. The deduced amino-acid sequence of the receptor yields a hydropathy profile characteristic of receptors with seven putative transmembrane regions. This and the comparison with other cloned receptors indicates that the ADH receptor is a member of the superfamily of G-protein-coupled receptors.     

Direct protein-protein coupling enables cross-talk between dopamine D5 and gamma-aminobutyric acid A receptors

GABA(A) (gamma-aminobutyric-acid A) and dopamine D1 and D5 receptors represent two structurally and functionally divergent families of neurotransmitter receptors. The former comprises a class of multi-subunit ligand-gated channels mediating fast interneuronal synaptic transmission, whereas the latter belongs to the seven-transmembrane-domain single-polypeptide receptor superfamily that exerts its biological effects, including the modulation of GABA(A) receptor function, through the activation of second-messenger signalling cascades by G proteins. Here we show that GABA(A)-ligand-gated channels complex selectively with D5 receptors through the direct binding of the D5 carboxy-terminal domain with the second intracellular loop of the GABA(A) gamma2(short) receptor subunit. This physical association enables mutually inhibitory functional interactions between these receptor systems. The data highlight a previously unknown signal transduction mechanism whereby subtype-selective G-protein-coupled receptors dynamically regulate synaptic strength independently of classically defined second-messenger systems, and provide a heuristic framework in which to view these receptor systems in the maintenance of psychomotor disease states.     

Structure and expression of a human oxytocin receptor.

Just before the onset of labour, uterine myometrium becomes extremely sensitive to oxytocin, for which it is a primary target tissue, because of a dramatic increase in the number of oxytocin receptors. We report here the structure and expression of the human oxytocin receptor complementary DNA isolated by expression cloning. The encoded receptor is a 388-amino-acid polypeptide with 7 transmembrane domains typical of G protein-coupled receptors. The oxytocin receptor, expressed in Xenopus oocytes, specifically responds to oxytocin and induces an inward membrane current. Messenger RNAs for the receptor are of two sizes, 3.6 kilobases in breast, and 4.4 kilobases in ovary, uterine endometrium and myometrium. The mRNA level in the myometrium is very high at term. We conclude that the increase in receptor number in the myometrium at labour is, at least in part, due to the increase in mRNA.