Heterogeneous chemistry in the atmosphere of Mars

Hydrogen radicals are produced in the martian atmosphere by the photolysis of water vapour and subsequently initiate catalytic cycles that recycle carbon dioxide from its photolysis product carbon monoxide. These processes provide a qualitative explanation for the stability of the atmosphere of Mars, which contains 95 per cent carbon dioxide. Balancing carbon dioxide production and loss based on our current understanding of the gas-phase chemistry in the martian atmosphere has, however, proven to be difficult. Interactions between gaseous chemical species and ice cloud particles have been shown to be key factors in the loss of polar ozone observed in the Earth's stratosphere, and may significantly perturb the chemistry of the Earth's upper troposphere. Water-ice clouds are also commonly observed in the atmosphere of Mars and it has been suggested previously that heterogeneous chemistry could have an important impact on the composition of the martian atmosphere. Here we use a state-of-the-art general circulation model together with new observations of the martian ozone layer to show that model simulations that include chemical reactions occurring on ice clouds lead to much improved quantitative agreement with observed martian ozone levels in comparison with model simulations based on gas-phase chemistry alone. Ozone is readily destroyed by hydrogen radicals and is therefore a sensitive tracer of the chemistry that regulates the atmosphere of Mars. Our results suggest that heterogeneous chemistry on ice clouds plays an important role in controlling the stability and composition of the martian atmosphere.     

Albedo of the south pole on Mars determined by topographic forcing of atmosphere dynamics

The nature of the martian south polar cap has remained enigmatic since the first spacecraft observations. In particular, the presence of a perennial carbon dioxide ice cap, the formation of a vast area of black 'slab ice' known as the Cryptic region and the asymmetric springtime retreat of the cap have eluded explanation. Here we present observations and climate modelling that indicate the south pole of Mars is characterized by two distinct regional climates that are the result of dynamical forcing by the largest southern impact basins, Argyre and Hellas. The style of surface frost deposition is controlled by these regional climates. In the cold and stormy conditions that exist poleward of 60 degrees S and extend 180 degrees in longitude west from the Mountains of Mitchel (approximately 30 degrees W), surface frost accumulation is dominated by precipitation. In the opposite hemisphere, the polar atmosphere is relatively warm and clear and frost accumulation is dominated by direct vapour deposition. It is the differences in these deposition styles that determine the cap albedo.     

Impact origin of sediments at the Opportunity landing site on Mars

Mars Exploration Rover Opportunity discovered sediments with layered structures thought to be unique to aqueous deposition and with minerals attributed to evaporation of an acidic salty sea. Remarkable iron-rich spherules were ascribed to later groundwater alteration, and the inferred abundance of water reinforced optimism that Mars was once habitable. The layered structures, however, are not unique to water deposition, and the scenario encounters difficulties in accounting for highly soluble salts admixed with less soluble salts, the lack of clay minerals from acid-rock reactions, high sphericity and near-uniform sizes of the spherules and the absence of a basin boundary. Here we present a simple alternative explanation involving deposition from a ground-hugging turbulent flow of rock fragments, salts, sulphides, brines and ice produced by meteorite impact. Subsequent weathering by intergranular water films can account for all of the features observed without invoking shallow seas, lakes or near-surface aquifers. Layered sequences observed elsewhere on heavily cratered Mars and attributed to wind, water or volcanism may well have formed similarly. If so, the search for past life on Mars should be reassessed accordingly.     

移动降雨条件下结皮对坡面产沙的影响机理

通过室内小尺度坡面(4m×1m)人工降雨物理模型,设计沿坡面上下移动的移动降雨工况进行产沙产流过程比对试验,对产流产沙量时空特性及侵蚀泥沙粒径特性进行分析,探讨不同降雨移动方向条件下结皮对坡面产沙过程的影响机理。结果显示:结皮发育造成产沙显著减少;降雨向上移动时,结皮发育成熟使峰值产沙提前出现,而向下移动时产沙峰值始终随产流峰值一起出现;向上移动降雨工况在雨强3.6×10-5 m/s时达到产沙峰值和等效泥沙浓度的最大值,而向下移动工况则对应更大的降雨强度;结皮发育在降雨初期对产沙成分的影响最明显,总体上产沙成分保持特定比例结构,粉粒最易受侵蚀,粘粒次之。研究表明:结皮发育是影响移动降雨条件下坡面产沙时空特性的重要因素。     

大气传输对量子纠缠时钟同步测量精度影响分析

采用量子纠缠进行时钟同步的测量精度在理想信道传输中可以达到飞秒级;但纠缠光子在非理想信道(大气层)传输中将产生传输时延。分析了因大气吸收效应和散射效应产生的衰减和散射效应引起的时延,重点分析了两者对于量子时钟同步测量结果的影响。仿真表明,经过大气传输后量子时钟同步测量精度为0.01 ns,传输经验模型造成误差为1 ns。     

Hydrated silicate minerals on Mars observed by the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter CRISM instrument

Phyllosilicates, a class of hydrous mineral first definitively identified on Mars by the OMEGA (Observatoire pour la Mineralogie, L'Eau, les Glaces et l'Activitié) instrument, preserve a record of the interaction of water with rocks on Mars. Global mapping showed that phyllosilicates are widespread but are apparently restricted to ancient terrains and a relatively narrow range of mineralogy (Fe/Mg and Al smectite clays). This was interpreted to indicate that phyllosilicate formation occurred during the Noachian (the earliest geological era of Mars), and that the conditions necessary for phyllosilicate formation (moderate to high pH and high water activity) were specific to surface environments during the earliest era of Mars's history. Here we report results from the Compact Reconnaissance Imaging Spectrometer for Mars (CRISM) of phyllosilicate-rich regions. We expand the diversity of phyllosilicate mineralogy with the identification of kaolinite, chlorite and illite or muscovite, and a new class of hydrated silicate (hydrated silica). We observe diverse Fe/Mg-OH phyllosilicates and find that smectites such as nontronite and saponite are the most common, but chlorites are also present in some locations. Stratigraphic relationships in the Nili Fossae region show olivine-rich materials overlying phyllosilicate-bearing units, indicating the cessation of aqueous alteration before emplacement of the olivine-bearing unit. Hundreds of detections of Fe/Mg phyllosilicate in rims, ejecta and central peaks of craters in the southern highland Noachian cratered terrain indicate excavation of altered crust from depth. We also find phyllosilicate in sedimentary deposits clearly laid by water. These results point to a rich diversity of Noachian environments conducive to habitability.     

Mega-impact formation of the Mars hemispheric dichotomy

The Mars hemispheric dichotomy is expressed as a dramatic difference in elevation, crustal thickness and crater density between the southern highlands and northern lowlands (which cover approximately 42% of the surface). Despite the prominence of the dichotomy, its origin has remained enigmatic and models for its formation largely untested. Endogenic degree-1 convection models with north-south asymmetry are incomplete in that they are restricted to simulating only mantle dynamics and they neglect crustal evolution, whereas exogenic multiple impact events are statistically unlikely to concentrate in one hemisphere. A single mega-impact of the requisite size has not previously been modelled. However, it has been hypothesized that such an event could obliterate the evidence of its occurrence by completely covering the surface with melt or catastrophically disrupting the planet. Here we present a set of single-impact initial conditions by which a large impactor can produce features consistent with the observed dichotomy's crustal structure and persistence. Using three-dimensional hydrodynamic simulations, large variations are predicted in post-impact states depending on impact energy, velocity and, importantly, impact angle, with trends more pronounced or unseen in commonly studied smaller impacts. For impact energies of approximately (3-6) x 10(29) J, at low impact velocities (6-10 km s(-1)) and oblique impact angles (30-60 degrees ), the resulting crustal removal boundary is similar in size and ellipticity to the observed characteristics of the lowlands basin. Under these conditions, the melt distribution is largely contained within the area of impact and thus does not erase the evidence of the impact's occurrence. The antiquity of the dichotomy is consistent with the contemporaneous presence of impactors of diameter 1,600-2,700 km in Mars-crossing orbits, and the impact angle is consistent with the expected distribution.     

流域土壤侵蚀对椒江口悬浮泥沙时空分布的影响

利用通用土壤流失方程,对椒江流域1995年、2000年、2005年、2010年及2015年土壤侵蚀模数进行估算,椒江流域1995年、2000年、2005年、2010年及2015年均达到中等土壤侵蚀的强度,其中,1995年至2010年土壤侵蚀有逐年恶化的趋势,而2010年至2015年有所缓解.基于椒江及河口、近岸的野外实测数据,构建椒江及近岸水体悬浮泥沙浓度遥感定量反演模型,对椒江及近岸水体1995年、2000年、2005年、2010年及2015年悬浮泥沙浓度进行估算,对水体悬浮泥沙的空间分布进行分析,椒江口水体悬浮泥沙浓度表现出较强的空间分布规律及高时空动态性,其中,椒江悬浮泥沙浓度明显高于河口和台州湾;椒江中游累年悬浮泥沙浓度平均值最大,时空动态性最低,受陆相及海相输沙综合影响,易形成悬浮泥沙的最大浑浊带.流域土壤侵蚀量越大,水体悬浮泥沙浓度越高.最后,定量分析了降雨,日照时间和人类活动等因素对河口悬浮泥沙格局影响.降雨作为椒江地表径流的主要来源,对悬浮泥沙也起到一定的“稀释”作用.年内日照时长的增加,加剧了水体水量的损失,削弱水体的“稀释”作用.若以流域内居民地面积表征人类活动强度,其与水体年均悬浮泥沙浓度之间相关性较弱,但其年际变化表现出较高的相关性.     

火星探测研究结果分析

火星是地球的近邻,很多方面的特征与地球相似.有观点认为,火星是地球的未来,即地球经过长期演化,其内部机构、地表和空间环境可能会变成火星现在的状况.因而在与地球比较的基础上,开展火星探测和研究,不仅对于探索火星及其空间的奥秘,而且对于认识地球都有重要的意义.本文对空间飞行器所取得的有关火星的探测结果(包括火星内部结构和火星表面、火星大气、火星电离层和磁层,以及太阳风与火星的相互作用等)进行了分析和概述,内容涉及火星内部化学成分、火星岩石中的元素、火星表面地形和尘暴,火星大气的光化学过程、火星大气的季节变化和大气中的同位素,火星上过去全球尺度的磁场和现在的局域强磁场观测,火星全球尺度偶极磁场的可能反转,太阳风与火星电离层相互作用所形成的感应型磁层等科学问题.结合目前火星探测和研究的现状,对火星研究的主要科学问题和意义进行了简单描述.     

原始生殖细胞迁移的研究进展

概述了不同类群动物原始生殖细胞（primordial germ cells,PGCs）的起源和迁移路径.介绍了当前有关不同类群动物PGCs在胚胎发育中与迁移有关的因子和基因的功能,这些因子和基因包括细胞外基质中的生物大分子纤粘连蛋白（fibrbonectin）、Tenascin-C、层粘连蛋白（laminin）,Foxc1基因、JAK/STAT信号通路、信号分子STAT 和RAS、基质细胞衍生因子-1（stromal cell-derived factor-1,SDF-1）、F-肌动蛋白（F-actin）等.评述了PGCs迁移研究中存在的问题,认为众多调控因子与PGCs迁移的关系虽已被揭示,但各因子对PGCs详细作用机制及其相互联系、不同物种PGCs迁移的调控因子之间的同源性及如何把单一的作用效果整合起来等问题有待解决.     

Meridiani Planum and the global hydrology of Mars

The Opportunity Mars Exploration Rover found evidence for groundwater activity in the Meridiani Planum region of Mars in the form of aeolian and fluvial sediments composed of sulphate-rich grains. These sediments appear to have experienced diagenetic modification in the presence of a fluctuating water table. In addition to the extensive secondary aqueous alteration, the primary grains themselves probably derive from earlier playa evaporites. Little is known, however, about the hydrologic processes responsible for this environmental history-particularly how such extensive evaporite deposits formed in the absence of a topographic basin. Here we investigate the origin of these deposits, in the context of the global hydrology of early Mars, using numerical simulations, and demonstrate that Meridiani is one of the few regions of currently exposed ancient crust predicted to have experienced significant groundwater upwelling and evaporation. The global groundwater flow would have been driven primarily by precipitation-induced recharge and evaporative loss, with the formation of the Tharsis volcanic rise possibly playing a role through the burial of aquifers and induced global deformation. These results suggest that the deposits formed as a result of sustained groundwater upwelling and evaporation, rather than ponding within an enclosed basin. The evaporite formation coincided with a transition to more arid conditions that increased the relative impact of a deep-seated, global-scale hydrology on the surface evolution.     

Evolution of the atmosphere and oceans

The residence times of most constituents of the atmosphere and oceans are small fractions of the age of the Earth and, in general, their rate of output has been nearly equal to their rate of input. We are disturbing a number of these dynamic equilibria quite severely. The mineralogy of marine evaporites rules out drastic changes in the composition of sea water during the last 900 Myr. The chemistry of soils formed more than 1,000 Myr ago suggests that the atmosphere then contained significantly more CO2 and less O2 than at present. Hydrogen peroxide may well have been the principal oxidant and formaldehyde the main reductant in rain water between 3,000 and 1,000 Myr ago. Major changes in atmospheric chemistry since that time are almost certainly related to the evolution of the biosphere.