中国20世纪30年代科学化运动与现实启迪

20世纪30年代科学化运动是科学家们自觉地实践科教兴国的一次尝试.他们不但从事自己的科学研究事业,还做民众的科普工作,把科学与国家工业化结合起来.他们注重科学技术的应用,但反对只把科学技术当成满足某种实际需要的工具,他们将以培养科学精神作为科学教育的使命.这个时代的科学家直接受现代科学的洗礼,但不失知识分子的人文关怀,具有传统的人文修养和气质.     

谈科技论文署名的新趋势

当前,论文的署名成为科技工作者十分关心的问题。本文就科技论文署名的发展历史、国际及国内的多作者化新趋势进行了综述。对2001--2008年期间我国科技工作者在Nature、Science等5个国际知名杂志所刊登论文的署名情况进行了统计分析,发现我国科技论文在署名和基金标注上融入了论文署名多作者化的国际新趋势。提出了我国科技工作者的论文署名在遵守国际规则方面的一些建议。     

Model-Based and Manipulative Abduction in Science

What I call theoretical abduction (sentential and model-based)certainly illustrates much of what is important in abductive reasoning, especially the objective of selecting and creating a set of hypotheses that are able to dispense good (preferred) explanations of data, but fails to account for many cases of explanation occurring in science or in everyday reasoning when the exploitation of the environment is crucial. The concept of manipulative abduction is devoted to capture the role of action in many interesting situations: action provides otherwise unavailable information that enables the agent to solve problems by starting and performing a suitable abductive process of generation or selection of hypotheses. Many external things, usually inert from the epistemological point of view, can be transformed into what I callepistemic mediators, which are illustrated in the last part of the paper, together with an analysis of the related notions of ``perceptual and inceptual rehearsal' and of ``external representation'.     

Perceiving the Infinite and the Infinitesimal World: Unveiling and Optical Diagrams in Mathematics

Many important concepts of the calculus are difficult to grasp, and they may appear epistemologically unjustified. For example, how does a real function appear in “small” neighborhoods of its points? How does it appear at infinity? Diagrams allow us to overcome the difficulty in constructing representations of mathematical critical situations and objects. For example, they actually reveal the behavior of a real function not “close to” a point (as in the standard limit theory) but “in” the point. We are interested in our research in the diagrams which play an optical role –microscopes and “microscopes within microscopes”, telescopes, windows, a mirror role (to externalize rough mental models), and an unveiling role (to help create new and interesting mathematical concepts, theories, and structures). In this paper we describe some examples of optical diagrams as a particular kind of epistemic mediator able to perform the explanatory abductive task of providing a better understanding of the calculus, through a non-standard model of analysis. We also maintain they can be used in many other different epistemological and cognitive situations.     

科学客观性:外在性与内在性的交融

本文试图从内在性与外在性两个层面重建科学客观性。一方面,科学对象的客观实在性并非一种外在于人的自在性,而是主体在自身的对象性活动中与客观世界耦合而得到的结果,是一种属人的现实,是在实践中被确立起来的。科学家们借助于直观方法与理性工具把所捉到实体与过程、类型与结构、解释句与理论模型等等,都在某种程度上独立于我们的主观表象,承载着对象的客观性——外在客观性。它们构成了"科学共同体"的"本体论承诺"。另一方面,这种外在的客观性,是在人类主体的内在化过程中实现的。在现代科学中,科学家们自觉地运用对称性工具实现的"内在化"所得到的"变换下的不变性",使得科学具有了公共可理解性与可接受性。这种在人类旨趣、目的和价值引领下对世界实行的主动干预所实现的公共性,就是内在客观性。因此,科学客观性是一曲由外在性与内在性合奏出来的交响曲。     

Covariance/Invariance: A Cognitive Heuristic in Einstein's Relativity Theory Formation

Relativity Theory by Albert Einstein has been so far littleconsidered by cognitive scientists, notwithstanding its undisputedscientific and philosophical moment. Unfortunately, we don't have adiary or notebook as cognitively useful as Faraday's. But physicshistorians and philosophers have done a great job that is relevant bothfor the study of the scientist's reasoning and the philosophy ofscience. I will try here to highlight the fertility of a `triangulation'using cognitive psychology, history of science and philosophy of sciencein starting answering a clearly very complex question:why did Einstein discover Relativity Theory? Here we arenot much concerned with the unending question of precisely whatEinstein discovered, that still remains unanswered, for we have noconsensus over the exact nature of the theory's foundations(Norton 1993). We are mainly interested in starting to answer the`how question', and especially the following sub-question: what(presumably) were his goals and strategies in hissearch? I will base my argument on fundamental publications ofEinstein, aiming at pointing out a theory-specific heuristic, settingboth a goal and a strategy: covariance/invariance.The result has significance in theory formation in science, especiallyin concept and model building. It also raises other questions that gobeyond the aim of this paper: why was he so confident in suchheuristic? Why didn't many other scientists use it? Where did he keep ? such a heuristic? Do we have any other examples ofsimilar heuristic search in other scientific problemsolving?     

A New Mechanism for Transfer Between Conceptual Domains in Scientific Discovery and Education

Confronted with problems or situations that do not yield toknown theories and world views, scientists and students are alike. Theyare rarely able to directly build a model or a theory thereof. Rather,they must find ways to make sense of the circumstances using theircurrent knowledge and adjusting what is recognized in the process. Thisway of thinking, using past ways of perceiving the physical world tobuild new ones does not follow a logical path and cannot be described astheory revision. Likewise, in many situations it is awkward, indeedoften impossible, to resort to analogical reasoning to account for it.This paper presents a new mechanism, called `tunnel effect', that mayexplain, in part, how scientists and students reason while constructinga new conceptual domain. `Tunnel effect' is also contrasted withanalogical reasoning.     

20世纪对西方占星术的科学检验

20世纪,一些学者和科学家试图用已有的科学理论和哲学分析将西方占星术(astrology)①排除在科学之外,但真正让西方占星术目前仍没能走入主流科学里的,却是近30年来的几百个对占星术有效性的科学检验.今天从哲学上看,无论是证伪主义所表述的科学是理性的,还是历史主义所表述的科学是非理性的都一致地把占星术拒斥在科学之外.占星术之所以又会在大众中盛行起来,是缘于在20世纪初人们开始对科学万能发生质疑,同时对主要是涉及精神领域的占星术,至今仍没有能很好替代它的科学学科,正如化学、核物理学可以很好地替代炼金术那样.     

Reasoning to Hypotheses: Where Do Questions Come?

Detectives and scientists are in the business of reasoning from observations to explanations. This they often do by raising cunning questionsduring their inquiries. But to substantiate this claim we need to know how questions arise and how they are nurtured into more specific hypotheses. I shall discuss what the problem is, and then introduce the so-called interrogative model of inquiry which makes use of an explicit logic of questions. On this view, a discovery processes can be represented as a model-based game in which an inquirer subjects a source of information to a series of strategically organized questions. Strategic principles and why-questions are especially important in heuristical reasoning. Why-questions have their own peculiar nature among questions. They indicate that the inquirer's expectations are somehow disappointed, and that is cognitively challenging. In a finished argument why-questions can be omitted, but in the search for more specific questions they are highly important. As a detetective example I shall analyze Sherlock Holmes reasoning in Silver Blace, the scientific one is A.R. Wallace's discovery of the principle of natural selection. In both of these examples the meaning of questions, especially of well-chosen why-questions, of strategic principles, and of highly structured background knowledge come to the fore. Good questions frequent those who have orderly expectations, based on experience and expertise (detectives!) or highly structured background theories (scientists!).     

钱学森创造和译定的科技名词

作为科技创新的实践者和科学知识的传播者,科技工作者是科技名词本土化和民族化的主体。钱学森是20世纪应用科学领域最为杰出的科学家之一,也是为新中国的成长作出巨大贡献的老一辈科学家团体中的杰出代表。钱学森一生创造和译定过不少的科技名词,许多都已经成为当代科学领域中的通用术语。     

休闲与科学创造——以爱因斯坦为例

从爱因斯坦的科学历程可以看出，休闲与科学创造活动存在着较密切的关系。休闲有利于科研工作者保持充沛的体力，有利于激发科学创造活动的灵感，有利于科研工作者的互动与沟通。因此，科研管理者和工作者都应重视二者之间的关系。     

日本1868—1945年科学的发展

这是一篇描述日本科学发展史的文章。日本科学的发展,起始于日本步入近代国家的１８６８年,成熟于第二次世界大战结束之时。文章主要阐述了５个方面的内容：（１）１８６８年以前,在日本流行的汉学研究,对日本后来接受西学的重要作用,日本人把汉字有效地运用的创造科学专业术语;（２）受益于聘请的大批外国专家的帮助,日本在最初引入西学的３０年中,采取的是强行灌输西方科学技术的手段,这在世界近现代史中是罕见的;（３）     

科研不端行为的社会学分析

本文用社会学越轨理论中的社会反常论与文化传播论系统分析了科研不端行为。前者认为普遍性规范没有充分实现与科学共同体的分层导致科研不端行为发生;后者表明在一定的社会道德环境中,科研不端行为必然被科学家在其社会化中学到,从而可能导致不端行为传播。     

论爱因斯坦逻辑简单性思想及其渊源

简单性作为科学家的信念,引起了不少哲学家和科学家的关注。爱因斯坦的逻辑简单性思想不仅是他的科学信念,而且也是科学认识的指导原则和科学研究方法论的基本准则,并且体现在他创立相对论的过程中。本文首先对爱因斯坦之前的简单性思想进行了梳理,为理解爱因斯坦逻辑简单性思想独创性奠定基础;其次,探讨了爱因斯坦逻辑简单性思想的丰富内涵及其对他创立相对论的影响,澄清一些模糊的认识;最后,分析了爱因斯坦逻辑简单性思想的来源,特别是斯宾诺莎哲学的影响,为人们理解哲学与科学之间的互动关系提供了具体的案例。     

On The Impossibility Of Empirical Controls Of Scientific Theories – From The Point Of View Of A Psychologist

Standard considerations of philosophy of science are reformulated in psychological terms and arguments, suggesting a fundamental change in life perspective: subjective experiences or introspective data are subject to motivational biases and therefore not admitted as objective empirical facts in science, However, we never experience objects or events of the external world, i.e., so called objective facts, but exclusively subjective percepts or mental events. They are merely assumed to, but may or may not be accurate or distorted mental representations of objects or events of an external world. Accordingly, the latter are theoretical constructs, i.e., constructs of the fictitious but most successful predictive (implicit) theory, called external world, which seems to be constructed from regularities observed in mental events and serves as a reference fiction for, erroneously called empirical, tests of predictions of scientific theories.Relevant Publication: Micko, H.C.: 2001, Psychologie: Von der Geistes – zur Naturwissenschaft – und weiter wohin? Erkenntnistheoretische Erwägungen vor und nach dem Aufkommen des philosophischen Konstruktivismus. Ztschr. f. Psychologie, 209: 54–68.     

团队心智模型和交互记忆系统：两种团队知识表征方式

团队是知识创造和创新的主体,其认知特征和管理模式越来越引起人们的关注。团队认知与管理的基础在于团队知识的表征方式。在认知科学的视角下,团队心智模型和交互记忆系统这两种主要的团队知识表征方式有其特定的概念内涵,它们之间存在复杂的内在联系。在研究团队行为时需要越过具体的行为本身,探究团队知识表征的内在逻辑和意义。     

Science Is Not Always “Self-Correcting”

Some prominent scientists and philosophers have stated openly that moral and political considerations should influence whether we accept or promulgate scientific theories. This widespread view has significantly influenced the development, and public perception, of intelligence research. Theories related to group differences in intelligence are often rejected a priori on explicitly moral grounds. Thus the idea, frequently expressed by commentators on science, that science is “self-correcting”—that hypotheses are simply abandoned when they are undermined by empirical evidence—may not be correct in all contexts. In this paper, documentation spanning from the early 1970s to the present is collected, which reveals the influence of scientists’ moral and political commitments on the study of intelligence. It is suggested that misrepresenting findings in science to achieve desirable social goals will ultimately harm both science and society.     

论"宁静"的科学革命

政治革命或是社会革命通常倚仗暴力活动，实现一种突发、剧烈的变革。科学革命则是对科学思想进行一些重大的重新组合，其内在动力发端于科学家的能动作用。科学革命有别于其他革命的基本特质就在于科学认识、科学方法、科学心理的产生，而科学的认识、方法、心理被激发之动力源于科学家本人之心灵静思。宁静是沉思的前提条件。而在宁静中沉思乃是科学革命得以成功的必要夺件。     

国家需要、部门利益与科学家自主性的调适--以中国科学院化学研究所的筹建与初期发展为中心的探讨

1953年，中国科学院从事化学研究的第5个机构——化学研究所——在北京酝酿筹建；3年以后，各项工作开始正常运行。在筹建过程中，功能不同的群体——科学家与科学管理者——之间、利益不同的群体——科学家与科学家——之间各种认识、主张不断斗争、不断协调，直至最终取得某种平衡。由此可以看出，新中国成立以后，政府利用极其有限的人力、物力资源，为建立一个与新的经济体制和政治体制相适应的新的科研体制所作的尝试。