Genome evolution in yeasts

Identifying the mechanisms of eukaryotic genome evolution by comparative genomics is often complicated by the multiplicity of events that have taken place throughout the history of individual lineages, leaving only distorted and superimposed traces in the genome of each living organism. The hemiascomycete yeasts, with their compact genomes, similar lifestyle and distinct sexual and physiological properties, provide a unique opportunity to explore such mechanisms. We present here the complete, assembled genome sequences of four yeast species, selected to represent a broad evolutionary range within a single eukaryotic phylum, that after analysis proved to be molecularly as diverse as the entire phylum of chordates. A total of approximately 24,200 novel genes were identified, the translation products of which were classified together with Saccharomyces cerevisiae proteins into about 4,700 families, forming the basis for interspecific comparisons. Analysis of chromosome maps and genome redundancies reveal that the different yeast lineages have evolved through a marked interplay between several distinct molecular mechanisms, including tandem gene repeat formation, segmental duplication, a massive genome duplication and extensive gene loss.     

Proof and evolutionary analysis of ancient genome duplication in the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae

Whole-genome duplication followed by massive gene loss and specialization has long been postulated as a powerful mechanism of evolutionary innovation. Recently, it has become possible to test this notion by searching complete genome sequence for signs of ancient duplication. Here, we show that the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae arose from ancient whole-genome duplication, by sequencing and analysing Kluyveromyces waltii, a related yeast species that diverged before the duplication. The two genomes are related by a 1:2 mapping, with each region of K. waltii corresponding to two regions of S. cerevisiae, as expected for whole-genome duplication. This resolves the long-standing controversy on the ancestry of the yeast genome, and makes it possible to study the fate of duplicated genes directly. Strikingly, 95% of cases of accelerated evolution involve only one member of a gene pair, providing strong support for a specific model of evolution, and allowing us to distinguish ancestral and derived functions.     

真核生物中支架蛋白家族(IQGAP family)的分子进化分析

支架蛋白家族(IQGAP family)广泛存在于真核生物中,在细胞的信号转导、骨架运动、细胞分裂的过程中都有着重要功能.研究分析IQGAP蛋白家族的分子进化,有助于深入全面地了解整个IQGAP蛋白家族在不同物种中功能.通过使用相关数据库,在35个真核生物物种中检索到了70个支架蛋白家族成员的序列信息,并对其进行了系统的分子进化研究.我们发现:支架蛋白家族基因广泛存在于后生动物(Metazoan)、真菌(Fungi)、变形虫界(Amoebozoa)以及其他一些真核生物中,提示支架蛋白存在于最后的真核生物的共同祖先(Last Eukaryotic Common Ancestor,LECA).系统发育分析表明脊椎动物的IQGAP蛋白和非脊椎动物中代表性IQGAP基因共享一个共同的祖先基因,单个的IQGAP祖先基因在早期脊椎动物中(在四足总纲和硬骨鱼纲的分离之前),发生了两次基因复制事件,导致现存的脊椎动物中3组IQGAP基因(IQGAP1,IQGAP2,IQGAP3)产生.     

Positive selection of a gene family during the emergence of humans and African apes

Gene duplication followed by adaptive evolution is one of the primary forces for the emergence of new gene function. Here we describe the recent proliferation, transposition and selection of a 20-kilobase (kb) duplicated segment throughout 15 Mb of the short arm of human chromosome 16. The dispersal of this segment was accompanied by considerable variation in chromosomal-map location and copy number among hominoid species. In humans, we identified a gene family (morpheus) within the duplicated segment. Comparison of putative protein-encoding exons revealed the most extreme case of positive selection among hominoids. The major episode of enhanced amino-acid replacement occurred after the separation of human and great-ape lineages from the orangutan. Positive selection continued to alter amino-acid composition after the divergence of human and chimpanzee lineages. The rapidity and bias for amino-acid-altering nucleotide changes suggest adaptive evolution of the morpheus gene family during the emergence of humans and African apes. Moreover, some genes emerge and evolve very rapidly, generating copies that bear little similarity to their ancestral precursors. Consequently, a small fraction of human genes may not possess discernible orthologues within the genomes of model organisms.     

Repeated, recent and diverse transfers of a mitochondrial gene to the nucleus in flowering plants

A central component of the endosymbiotic theory for the bacterial origin of the mitochondrion is that many of its genes were transferred to the nucleus. Most of this transfer occurred early in mitochondrial evolution; functional transfer of mitochondrial genes has ceased in animals. Although mitochondrial gene transfer continues to occur in plants, no comprehensive study of the frequency and timing of transfers during plant evolution has been conducted. Here we report frequent loss (26 times) and transfer to the nucleus of the mitochondrial gene rps10 among 277 diverse angiosperms. Characterization of nuclear rps10 genes from 16 out of 26 loss lineages implies that many independent, RNA-mediated rps10 transfers occurred during recent angiosperm evolution; each of the genes may represent a separate functional gene transfer. Thus, rps10 has been transferred to the nucleus at a surprisingly high rate during angiosperm evolution. The structures of several nuclear rps10 genes reveal diverse mechanisms by which transferred genes become activated, including parasitism of pre-existing nuclear genes for mitochondrial or cytoplasmic proteins, and activation without gain of a mitochondrial targeting sequence.     

禾谷类植物胚凝集素基因的分子起源与进化

对禾谷类植物胚凝集素的基因结构进行了详细分析，发现该基因有4个hevein(结合域）编码区，研究表明，禾谷类植物胚凝集素基因是由1个较小的带单个hevein的祖先基因（或片段）经过2次顺接重复产生的，第一次重复产生1个双hevein结构，然后以这个双hevein结构为单位再次发生重复，最终产生了具有4个hevein的禾谷类胚凝集素基因的原型。对42个不同来源的hevein DNA序列进化关系的研究进一步证实了上述结论。初步发现，小麦B组染色体编码的麦胚凝集素WGA－B基因可能是该类禾谷类凝集素基因中比较原始的类型。植物hevein的氨基酸通式可以表述为：CXXXXCCSXXGXCGXXXXXC。     

Hox genes in brachiopods and priapulids and protostome evolution.

Understanding the early evolution of animal body plans requires knowledge both of metazoan phylogeny and of the genetic and developmental changes involved in the emergence of particular forms. Recent 18S ribosomal RNA phylogenies suggest a three-branched tree for the Bilateria comprising the deuterostomes and two great protostome clades, the lophotrochozoans and ecdysozoans. Here, we show that the complement of Hox genes in critical protostome phyla reflects these phylogenetic relationships and reveals the early evolution of developmental regulatory potential in bilaterians. We have identified Hox genes that are shared by subsets of protostome phyla. These include a diverged pair of posterior (Abdominal-B-like) genes in both a brachiopod and a polychaete annelid, which supports the lophotrochozoan assemblage, and a distinct posterior Hox gene shared by a priapulid, a nematode and the arthropods, which supports the ecdysozoan clade. The ancestors of each of these two major protostome lineages had a minimum of eight to ten Hox genes. The major period of Hox gene expansion and diversification thus occurred before the radiation of each of the three great bilaterian clades.     

Ancestral polyploidy in seed plants and angiosperms

Whole-genome duplication (WGD), or polyploidy, followed by gene loss and diploidization has long been recognized as an important evolutionary force in animals, fungi and other organisms, especially plants. The success of angiosperms has been attributed, in part, to innovations associated with gene or whole-genome duplications, but evidence for proposed ancient genome duplications pre-dating the divergence of monocots and eudicots remains equivocal in analyses of conserved gene order. Here we use comprehensive phylogenomic analyses of sequenced plant genomes and more than 12.6 million new expressed-sequence-tag sequences from phylogenetically pivotal lineages to elucidate two groups of ancient gene duplications-one in the common ancestor of extant seed plants and the other in the common ancestor of extant angiosperms. Gene duplication events were intensely concentrated around 319 and 192 million years ago, implicating two WGDs in ancestral lineages shortly before the diversification of extant seed plants and extant angiosperms, respectively. Significantly, these ancestral WGDs resulted in the diversification of regulatory genes important to seed and flower development, suggesting that they were involved in major innovations that ultimately contributed to the rise and eventual dominance of seed plants and angiosperms.     

Gene duplication plays a major role in gene co-option: Studies into the evolution of the motilin/ghrelin family and their receptors

Extant genes can be modified, or ‘tinkered with’, to provide new roles or new characteristics of these genes. At the genetic level, this often involves gene duplication and specialization of the resulting genes into particular functions. We investigate how ligand-receptor partnerships evolve after gene duplication. While significant work has been conducted in this area, the examination of additional models should help us better understand the proposed models and potentially reveal novel evolutionary pattern...     

Gene conversion between duplicated genetic elements in yeast

The mitotic recombination behaviour of a duplication of the his4 region on chromosome III in the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae was studied. The major recombination event between the duplicated segments is gene conversion unassociated with reciprocal recombination. The rad52-1 mutation preferentially decreases mitotic gene conversion. These results suggest that mitotic gene conversion may occur by a different pathway from that occurring in meiosis. This mitotic gene conversion may be important in yeast mating type interconversion and the maintenance of sequence homogeneity in families of repeated eukaryotic genes.     

Natural history and evolutionary principles of gene duplication in fungi

Gene duplication and loss is a powerful source of functional innovation. However, the general principles that govern this process are still largely unknown. With the growing number of sequenced genomes, it is now possible to examine these events in a comprehensive and unbiased manner. Here, we develop a procedure that resolves the evolutionary history of all genes in a large group of species. We apply our procedure to seventeen fungal genomes to create a genome-wide catalogue of gene trees that determine precise orthology and paralogy relations across these species. We show that gene duplication and loss is highly constrained by the functional properties and interacting partners of genes. In particular, stress-related genes exhibit many duplications and losses, whereas growth-related genes show selection against such changes. Whole-genome duplication circumvents this constraint and relaxes the dichotomy, resulting in an expanded functional scope of gene duplication. By characterizing the functional fate of duplicate genes we show that duplicated genes rarely diverge with respect to biochemical function, but typically diverge with respect to regulatory control. Surprisingly, paralogous modules of genes rarely arise, even after whole-genome duplication. Rather, gene duplication may drive the modularization of functional networks through specialization, thereby disentangling cellular systems.     

Adaptive evolution drives divergence of a hybrid inviability gene between two species of Drosophila

Speciation--the splitting of one species into two--occurs by the evolution of any of several forms of reproductive isolation between taxa, including the intrinsic sterility and inviability of hybrids. Abundant evidence shows that these hybrid fitness problems are caused by incompatible interactions between loci: new alleles that become established in one species are sometimes functionally incompatible with alleles at interacting loci from another species. However, almost nothing is known about the genes involved in such hybrid incompatibilities or the evolutionary forces that drive their divergence. Here we identify a gene that causes epistatic inviability in hybrids between two fruitfly species, Drosophila melanogaster and D. simulans. Our population genetic analysis reveals that this gene--which encodes a nuclear pore protein--evolved by positive natural selection in both species' lineages. These results show that a lethal hybrid incompatibility has evolved as a by-product of adaptive protein evolution.     

Large-scale analysis of the yeast genome by transposon tagging and gene disruption

Economical methods by which gene function may be analysed on a genomic scale are relatively scarce. To fill this need, we have developed a transposon-tagging strategy for the genome-wide analysis of disruption phenotypes, gene expression and protein localization, and have applied this method to the large-scale analysis of gene function in the budding yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Here we present the largest collection of defined yeast mutants ever generated within a single genetic background--a collection of over 11,000 strains, each carrying a transposon inserted within a region of the genome expressed during vegetative growth and/or sporulation. These insertions affect nearly 2,000 annotated genes, representing about one-third of the 6,200 predicted genes in the yeast genome. We have used this collection to determine disruption phenotypes for nearly 8,000 strains using 20 different growth conditions; the resulting data sets were clustered to identify groups of functionally related genes. We have also identified over 300 previously non-annotated open reading frames and analysed by indirect immunofluorescence over 1,300 transposon-tagged proteins. In total, our study encompasses over 260,000 data points, constituting the largest functional analysis of the yeast genome ever undertaken.     

SPL家族基因复制及功能分化分析

【目的】基因复制及随后的功能分化是基因组和物种演化的重要驱动力。植物特有的转录因子家族SPL(SQUAMOSA-promoter binding protein like)广泛参与调控植物生长发育及响应逆境胁迫,为研究重复基因的起源方式和进化命运提供了良好的研究系统。本研究对葡萄(Vitis vinifera)、番木瓜(Carica papaya)、毛果杨(Populus trichocarpa)和拟南芥(Arabidopsis thaliana)4种模式植物的SPL基因家族开展基因复制及功能分化分析,为进一步研究SPL基因功能、预测种属特异性的功能基因提供系统进化角度的参考。【方法】利用SBP特征结构域,鉴定葡萄、番木瓜、毛果杨和拟南芥4种模式植物中SPL基因家族成员,并利用最大似然法构建系统进化树。基于物种内、物种间基因组共线性,分析SPL基因家族发生基因复制的方式及差异保留情况,并计算保留的SPL直系和旁系同源基因的同义、非同义替换率,分析功能分化情况。【结果】在4种模式植物中共鉴定出SPL基因73个,其中42个是miR156的靶基因。系统进化分析显示:73个SPL基因聚类为9个主要分支,miR156靶向SPL基因成簇聚集在6个主要分支;Clade I中SPL基因编码的2个锌指结构基序为C4和C₂HC,而其余8个分支中SPL基因的锌指结构基序由C3H和C₂HC组成。大规模基因组复制事件(片段复制或全基因组复制)是SPL基因家族发生基因重复的主要方式。根据基因组复制事件推算,15个古基因位点理论上应复制出的360个位点中,83.6%的重复位点发生丢失或演化成非SPL基因。本研究鉴定出旁系同源基因17对,直系同源基因27对,且所有旁系和直系同源基因的K_a/K_s(非同义替换率和同义替换率之比)值均小于1。【结论】在不同物种中保留下来的SPL直系同源基因受到较强的纯化选择,在功能上具有保守性;同一物种中保留下来的SPL旁系同源基因在进化过程中维持部分功能冗余,但在组织表达偏好性和蛋白功能上已呈现出不同形式的分化。     

Insights into hominid evolution from the gorilla genome sequence

Gorillas are humans' closest living relatives after chimpanzees, and are of comparable importance for the study of human origins and evolution. Here we present the assembly and analysis of a genome sequence for the western lowland gorilla, and compare the whole genomes of all extant great ape genera. We propose a synthesis of genetic and fossil evidence consistent with placing the human-chimpanzee and human-chimpanzee-gorilla speciation events at approximately 6 and 10 million years ago. In 30% of the genome, gorilla is closer to human or chimpanzee than the latter are to each other; this is rarer around coding genes, indicating pervasive selection throughout great ape evolution, and has functional consequences in gene expression. A comparison of protein coding genes reveals approximately 500 genes showing accelerated evolution on each of the gorilla, human and chimpanzee lineages, and evidence for parallel acceleration, particularly of genes involved in hearing. We also compare the western and eastern gorilla species, estimating an average sequence divergence time 1.75 million years ago, but with evidence for more recent genetic exchange and a population bottleneck in the eastern species. The use of the genome sequence in these and future analyses will promote a deeper understanding of great ape biology and evolution.