Modulation of the neuronal glutamate transporter EAAT4 by two interacting proteins

Glutamate is the main excitatory neurotransmitter in the mammalian central nervous system and is removed from the synaptic cleft by sodium-dependent glutamate transporters. To date, five distinct glutamate transporters have been cloned from animal and human tissue: GLAST (EAAT1), GLT-1 (EAAT2), EAAC1 (EAAT3), EAAT4, and EAAT5 (refs 1-5). GLAST and GLT-1 are localized primarily in astrocytes, whereas EAAC1 (refs 8, 9), EAAT4 (refs 9-11) and EAAT5 (ref 5) are neuronal. Studies of EAAT4 and EAAC1 indicate an extrasynaptic localization on perisynaptic membranes that are near release sites. This localization facilitates rapid glutamate binding, and may have a role in shaping the amplitude of postsynaptic responses in densely packed cerebellar terminals. We have used a yeast two-hybrid screen to identify interacting proteins that may be involved in regulating EAAT4--the glutamate transporter expressed predominately in the cerebellum--or in targeting and/or anchoring or clustering the transporter to the target site. Here we report the identification and characterization of two proteins, GTRAP41 and GTRAP48 (for glutamate transporter EAAT4 associated protein) that specifically interact with the intracellular carboxy-terminal domain of EAAT4 and modulate its glutamate transport activity.     

Altered chloride ion channel kinetics associated with the delta F508 cystic fibrosis mutation.

Cystic fibrosis is associated with a defect in epithelial chloride ion transport which is caused by mutations in a membrane protein called CFTR (cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator). Heterologous expression of CFTR produces cyclicAMP-sensitive Cl(-)-channel activity. Deletion of phenylalanine at amino-acid position 508 in CFTR (delta F508 CFTR) is the most common mutation in cystic fibrosis. It has been proposed that this mutation prevents glycoprotein maturation and its transport to its normal cellular location. We have expressed both CFTR and delta F508 CFTR in Vero cells using recombinant vaccinia virus. Although far less delta F508 CFTR reached the plasma membrane than normal CFTR, sufficient delta F508 CFTR was expressed at the plasma membrane to permit functional analysis. delta F508 CFTR expression induced a reduced activity of the cAMP-activated Cl- channel, with conductance, anion selectivity and open-time kinetics similar to those of CFTR, but with much greater closed times, resulting in a large decrease of open probability. The delta F508 mutation thus seems to have two major consequences, an abnormal translocation of the CFTR protein which limits membrane insertion, and an abnormal function in mediating Cl- transport.     

小鼠胚胎脑特异表达的新基因bsg3的克隆及初步研究

通过消减差异筛选的方法克隆到一个在小鼠胚胎脑特异表达的基因bsg3(brain specific gene 3).它编码的蛋白与人的KIAA0961具有80.3%的同源性.bsg3基因包含一个1644bp的完整阅读框,编码一个含548个氨基酸,具有1个KRAB结构域(kruppel-associated box)和13个C2H2型锌指结构域的蛋白.该基因定位在小鼠第7号染色体上,包含5个外显子,4个内含子.以bsg3基因全长编码区为探针的原位杂交结果显示,bsg3在小鼠胚胎脑及鸡胚脑特异表达.半定量反转录聚合酶链式反应(RT-PCR)的结果表明,在成体小鼠的组织中,bsg3基因脑中表达也较强.这提示bsg3基因可能在小鼠脑发育中起着重要的作用.对bsg3基因时间和空间的表达模式的分析将有助于进一步揭示它在脑发育及功能维持中的作用.     

Functional characterization of a heteromeric NMDA receptor channel expressed from cloned cDNAs.

The glutamate receptor (GluR) channel plays a key part in brain function. Among GluR channel subtypes, the NMDA (N-methyl-D-aspartate) receptor channel which is highly permeable to Ca2+ is essential for the synaptic plasticity underlying memory, learning and development. Furthermore, abnormal activation of the NMDA receptor channel may trigger the neuronal cell death observed in various brain disorders. A complementary DNA encoding a subunit of the rodent NMDA receptor channel (NMDAR1 or zeta 1) has been cloned and its functional properties investigated. Here we report the identification and primary structure of a novel mouse NMDA receptor channel subunit, designated as epsilon 1, after cloning and sequencing the cDNA. The epsilon 1 subunit shows 11-18% amino-acid sequence identity with rodent GluR channel subunits that have been characterized so far and has structural features common to neurotransmitter-gated ion channels. Expression from cloned cDNAs of the epsilon 1 subunit together with the zeta 1 subunit in Xenopus oocytes yields functional GluR channels with high activity and characteristics of the NMDA receptor channel. Furthermore, the heteromeric NMDA receptor channel can be activated by glycine alone.     

Identification of scrapie prion protein-specific mRNA in scrapie-infected and uninfected brain

To date no nucleic acid has been found in the purified infectious agent which causes the spongiform encephalopathy known as scrapie. In an attempt to identify a unique scrapie virus-associated messenger RNA in tissues of infected animals, we have synthesized an oligonucleotide probe complementary to the mRNA sequence corresponding to the amino-acid sequence of the prion protein, PrP27-30 (ref. 1). We report here that, with this probe, a complementary DNA clone representing PrP27-30 was obtained from scrapie-infected mouse brain; the DNA sequence of this clone could be translated into a protein that matches exactly the published sequence of PrP27-30. The cDNA clone hybridized to a single 2.4-2.5-kilobase (kb) mRNA from both normal and scrapie-infected brain. Thus, the PrP27-30 mRNA is not uniquely associated with scrapie infectivity, suggesting that PrP27-30 may be a normal component of mouse and hamster brain.     

Protease inhibitor domain encoded by an amyloid protein precursor mRNA associated with Alzheimer's disease

Amyloid B-protein/amyloid A4 is a peptide present in the neuritic plaques, neurofibrillary tangles and cerebrovascular deposits in patients with Alzheimer's disease and Down's syndrome (trisomy 21) and may be involved in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease. Recent molecular genetic studies have indicated that amyloid protein is encoded as part of a larger protein by a gene on human chromosome 21 (refs 6-9). The amyloid protein precursor (APP) gene is expressed in brain and in several peripheral tissues, but the specific biochemical events leading to deposition of amyloid are not known. We have now screened complementary DNA libraries constructed from peripheral tissues to determine whether the messenger RNA encoding APP in these tissues is identical to that expressed in brain, and we identify a second APP mRNA that encodes an additional internal domain with a sequence characteristic of a Kunitz-type serine protease inhibitor. The alternative APP mRNA is present in both brain and peripheral tissues of normal individuals and those with Alzheimer's disease, but its pattern of expression differs from that of the previously reported APP mRNA.     

Developmental and activity-dependent regulation of kainate receptors at thalamocortical synapses.

Most of the fast excitatory synaptic transmission in the mammalian brain is mediated by ionotrophic glutamate receptors, of which there are three subtypes: AMPA (alpha-amino-3-hydroxyl-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionate), NMDA (N-methyl-D-aspartate) and kainate. Although kainate-receptor subunits (GluR5-7, KA1 and 2) are widely expressed in the mammalian central nervous system, little is known about their function. The development of pharmacological agents that distinguish between AMPA and kainate receptors has now allowed the functions of kainate receptors to be investigated. The modulation of synaptic transmission by kainate receptors and their synaptic activation in a variety of brain regions have been reported. The expression of kainate receptor subunits is developmentally regulated but their role in plasticity and development is unknown. Here we show that developing thalamocortical synapses express postsynaptic kainate receptors as well as AMPA receptors; however, the two receptor subtypes do not colocalize. During the critical period for experience-dependent plasticity, the kainate-receptor contribution to transmission decreases; a similar decrease occurs when long-term potentiation is induced in vitro. This indicates that during development there is activity-dependent regulation of the expression of kainate receptors at thalamocortical synapses.     

Comprehensive bioinformatic analysis of key genes and signaling pathways in glioma

The identification of specific survival-related differentially expressed genes (DEGs) is a method for uncovering therapeutic approaches for various cancers, including glioma. However, the key target genes associated with the occurrence and development of gliomas remain unknown. In this study, we performed bioinformatics analysis on 17 GSE datasets and identified DEGs correlated with glioma. A total of 74 mutual-DEGs with downregulated expression in gliomas compared with that in normal brain tissues were found in 17 datasets. These DEGs were related to GABAergic synaptic transmission, chloride transmembrane transport, glutamate secretion, and gamma-aminobutyric acid signaling pathway. Gamma-aminobutyric acid type A receptor subunit gamma 2 (GABRG2) was identified as a hub gene in the protein-protein interaction network. GABRG2 exhibited lower expression in IDH wild-type astrocytoma than that in IDH mutant astrocytoma and indicated poor prognosis in glioma patients. GABRG2 may contribute to the progression of glioma by affecting GABA receptor-related pathways and is a potential biomarker for the diagnosis and treatment of glioma.     

Identification of a vesicular glutamate transporter that defines a glutamatergic phenotype in neurons

Glutamate is the major excitatory neurotransmitter in the mammalian central nervous system. Synaptic vesicles are loaded with neurotransmitter by means of specific vesicular transporters. Here we show that expression of BNPI, a vesicle-bound transporter associated with sodium-dependent phosphate transport, results in glutamate uptake by intracellular vesicles. Substrate specificity and energy dependence are very similar to glutamate uptake by synaptic vesicles. Stimulation of exocytosis--fusion of the vesicles with the cell membrane and release of their contents--resulted in quantal release of glutamate from BNPI-expressing cells. Furthermore, we expressed BNPI in neurons containing GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid) and maintained them as cultures of single, isolated neurons that form synapses to themselves. After stimulation of these neurons, a component of the postsynaptic current is mediated by glutamate as it is blocked by a combination of the glutamate receptor antagonists, but is insensitive to a GABA(A) receptor antagonist. We conclude that BNPI functions as vesicular glutamate transporter and that expression of BNPI suffices to define a glutamatergic phenotype in neurons.     

The neurotrophic factor neuroleukin is 90% homologous with phosphohexose isomerase

Neuroleukin (NLK) is a protein of relative molecular mass (Mr) 56,000 (56K) secreted by denervated rat muscle and found in large amounts in muscle, brain, heart and kidneys. The protein is a neurotrophic factor for spinal and sensory neurons and a lymphokine product of lectin-stimulated T-cells. It also induces immunoglobulin secretion by human mononuclear cells. Molecular clones of NLK have been expressed in monkey COS cells and the product was shown to have the same biological and biochemical properties as the extracted protein. NLK is abundant in muscle, brain and kidney, but is active at concentrations of 10(-9) to 10(-11) M, similar to those for other polypeptide factors. We have cloned the gene for pig muscle phosphohexose isomerase (PHI) (EC 5.3.1.9) which catalyses the conversion of glucose-6-phosphate to fructose-6-phosphate, an obligatory step in glycolysis, and determined its amino-acid sequence. Surprisingly, it is 90% homologous to the sequence of mouse neuroleukin.     

Characterization of the Expression of CTRP9, a Paralog of Adiponectin

Adiponectin is one of the hormones secreted exclusively by the adipose tissue with anti-diabetic anti-inflammatory, anti-atherogenic, anti-atherosclerotic, and insulin-sensitizing effects. Adiponectin has structural features including a signal peptide at the N terminus, a short variable region, a collagenous domain, and a C-terminal globular domain homologous to Clq. The family of proteins containing this globular domain is called the C1q/tumor necrosis factor-a-related proteins （CTRP）. Among all the CTRPs characterized so far, the CTRP9 protein has the highest homology to adiponectin. However, little is known about the functions of CTRP9. This study examines the tissue expression of CTRP9 as well as the expression of CTRP9 during mouse development and 3T3-L1 preadipocyte differentiation. The effects of LPS, TNFα, and starvation on the expression of CTRP9 were also investigated. CTRP9 mRNA is shown to be expressed in a variety of tissues including the adipose tissues. The expression profile of CTRP9 differs from that of adiponectin, implying that they are functionally diverse although structurally homologous.     

人食管鳞癌及正常食管组织中Notch1基因的mRNA及蛋白的表达

采用RT-PCR方法,分别从人食管鳞癌及正常食管组织中扩增 Notch1基因,结果表明Notch1基因在人食管鳞癌及正常食管组织中均有表达.此外,通过免疫组织化学方法检测不同病理特征的35例食管鳞癌、16例原位癌及35例癌周正常食管粘膜上皮组织Notch1蛋白表达的变化,结果显示:Notch1蛋白在正常食管粘膜上皮组织和原位癌中的阳性率分别为82.9%、68.7%,二者无显著性差异(P＞0.05),但均显著高于食管鳞癌组织37.1%(P＜0.05),食管鳞癌Notch1蛋白的低表达与肿瘤的直径、分期和发生部位无关(P＞0.05),但与淋巴结转移有关(P＜0.05).这表明在正常食管粘膜上皮组织中Notch1蛋白高表达,而在食管癌鳞中Notch1蛋白呈现低表达或不表达.该研究为进一步探明Notch1基因的表达对食管癌细胞的发生、发展的影响奠定了良好的基础.     

Transferrin receptor on endothelium of brain capillaries

The blood/brain barrier prevents the passive diffusion of proteins and metabolites from cerebral blood vessels into tissue spaces around neuronal and glial cells. To provide nutrients for these cells, transport mechanisms must exist and indeed have been demonstrated for metabolites. We now show that monoclonal antibodies against rat and human transferrin receptors label blood capillaries in the brain but not in other tissues. In the rat this labelling occurs after injection of antibody into the blood, thus the receptors seem to be accessible at the endothelial surface. It is possible that transferrin receptors are expressed on these cells to allow transport of transferrin (and thus iron) into brain tissues.