Evolution of cooperation and conflict in experimental bacterial populations

A fundamental problem in biology is the evolutionary transition from single cells to multicellular life forms. During this transition the unit of selection shifts from individual cells to groups of cooperating cells. Although there is much theory, there are few empirical studies. Here we describe an evolutionary transition that occurs in experimental populations of Pseudomonas fluorescens propagated in a spatially heterogeneous environment. Cooperating groups are formed by over-production of an adhesive polymer, which causes the interests of individuals to align with those of the group. The costs and benefits of cooperation, plus evolutionary susceptibility to defecting genotypes, were analysed to determine conformation to theory. Cooperation was costly to individuals, but beneficial to the group. Defecting genotypes evolved in populations founded by the cooperating type and were fitter in the presence of this type than in its absence. In the short term, defectors sabotaged the viability of the group; but these findings nevertheless show that transitions to higher orders of complexity are readily achievable, provide insights into the selective conditions, and facilitate experimental analysis of the evolution of individuality.     

Evolution of cooperation in a finite homogeneous graph

Recent theoretical studies of selection in finite structured populations have worked with one of two measures of selective advantage of an allele: fixation probability and inclusive fitness. Each approach has its own analytical strengths, but given certain assumptions they provide equivalent results. In most instances the structure of the population can be specified by a network of nodes connected by edges (that is, a graph), and much of the work here has focused on a continuous-time model of evolution, first described by ref. 11. Working in this context, we provide an inclusive fitness analysis to derive a surprisingly simple analytical condition for the selective advantage of a cooperative allele in any graph for which the structure satisfies a general symmetry condition ('bi-transitivity'). Our results hold for a broad class of population structures, including most of those analysed previously, as well as some for which a direct calculation of fixation probability has appeared intractable. Notably, under some forms of population regulation, the ability of a cooperative allele to invade is seen to be independent of the nature of population structure (and in particular of how game partnerships are specified) and is identical to that for an unstructured population. For other types of population regulation our results reveal that cooperation can invade if players choose partners along relatively 'high-weight' edges.     

Emergence of group cooperation in public goods game on regular small-world network

The regular small-world network, which contains the properties of small-world network and regular network, has recently received substantial attention and has been applied in researches on 2-person games. However, it is a common phenomenon that cooperation always appears as a group behavior. In order to investigate the mechanism of group cooperation, we propose an evolutionary multi-person game model on a regular small-world network based on public goods game theory. Then, to make a comparison of frequency of cooperation among different networks, we carry out simulations on three kinds of networks with the same configuration of average degree: the square lattice, regular small-world network and random regular network. The results of simulation show that the group cooperation will emerge among these three networks when the enhancement factor r exceeds a threshold. Furthermore, time required for full cooperation on regular small-world network is slightly longer than the other networks, which indicates that the compact interactions and random interactions will promote cooperation, while the longer-range links are the obstacles in the emergence of cooperation. In addition, the cooperation would be promoted further by enhancing the random interactions on regular small-world network.     

Interference among deleterious mutations favours sex and recombination in finite populations

Sex and recombination are widespread, but explaining these phenomena has been one of the most difficult problems in evolutionary biology. Recombination is advantageous when different individuals in a population carry different advantageous alleles. By bringing together advantageous alleles onto the same chromosome, recombination speeds up the process of adaptation and opposes the fixation of harmful mutations by means of Muller's ratchet. Nevertheless, adaptive substitutions favour sex and recombination only if the rate of adaptive mutation is high, and Muller's ratchet operates only in small or asexual populations. Here, by tracking the fate of modifier alleles that alter the frequency of sex and recombination, we show that background selection against deleterious mutant alleles provides a stochastic advantage to sex and recombination that increases with population size. The advantage arises because, with low levels of recombination, selection at other loci severely reduces the effective population size and genetic variance in fitness at a focal locus (the Hill-Robertson effect), making a population less able to respond to selection and to rid itself of deleterious mutations. Sex and recombination reveal the hidden genetic variance in fitness by combining chromosomes of intermediate fitness to create chromosomes that are relatively free of (or are loaded with) deleterious mutations. This increase in genetic variance within finite populations improves the response to selection and generates a substantial advantage to sex and recombination that is fairly insensitive to the form of epistatic interactions between deleterious alleles. The mechanism supported by our results offers a robust and broadly applicable explanation for the evolutionary advantage of recombination and can explain the spread of costly sex.     

壳体强度和稳定性的非线性有限元分析

采用性能良好的离散克希霍夫三角形板壳单元，推导了非线性公式，包 括几何和物理两种非线性，可用于计算非线性平衡路径和极值载荷，给出非 线性分支屈曲分析。计算了几个算例，与已有的结果有良好的符合。     

基于两类总体的边坡稳定性判别分析

针对边坡稳定性影响因素复杂、传统的稳定性分析方法计算工作量巨大、计算过程复杂的问题,提出了一种新的解决方法——判别分析方法.以在边坡稳定性分析中广泛采用的边坡重度、内聚力、摩擦角、边坡角、边坡高度、孔隙压力比共六项指标作为判别因子,建立了可进行边坡稳定性预测的判别分析模型.典型工程实例的分析结果表明,该方法简便可行,具有较强的分析可靠度,且排除了边坡稳定性判别分类中人为因素的影响,为解决边坡岩体稳定性判定和分类提供了一条新的途径,可以在实际工程中进行推广.     

边坡稳定性的有限元数值模拟建模

本文针对国内某矿,考虑边坡材料的弹性和塑性,在不同的强度折减系数下,利用有限元法对该边坡进行稳定性计算分析,以判断其稳定性和计算出安全系数.由此可说明采用弹塑性有限元法进行计算具有独特的优势.     

有限元法在围岩稳定性分析中应用

有限元法具有计算精度高、对结构形状和荷载形式有良好的适应性等优点.有限元法把分析的连续体划分成许多较小单元,在单元之间满足线性方程,因此有限元法为非线性问题转化为线性问题提供了方法.基于有限元法开发的有限元软件具有划分有限元网格、计算隧洞围岩在开挖后的有限元各节点应力大小和变形位移、模拟围岩变形图、应力场分布和应力的流动等功能,为设计、开挖和维护隧洞提供了可行性方法.     

渗碳数学模型差分算法的条件稳定性和有效性

渗碳扩散方程的差分算法是条件稳定的 ,不是绝对稳定的 ,网格比和空间、时间步长及合适的初边值条件都影响差分算法的稳定性和有效性。网格比和时间、空间步长都有合理的选择范围 ,总误差在某个最优的时间、空间步长时达到最小。扩散方程实际上是一个变系数的偏微分方程 ,扩散系数是碳质量浓度的函数 ,扩散系数取值变化对最终的碳质量浓度计算结果影响较大 ,实际计算时应进行修正     

基于有限元法的采动坡体稳定性计算

本文运用有限元法的基本思路,提出了采动坡体稳定性的计算方法,并给出了实例计算。计算结果分析表明,与实际采动没坡有较好的一致性。     

岩溶塌陷稳定性有限元数值模拟

凤凰至大兴公路K0+500-K5+000段穿越碳酸盐岩区,据地面调查及钻探揭露,查明公路沿线发育溶洞,对区内岩溶地质环境进行了调查。选取典型溶洞,采用有限元稳定性分析方法对岩溶体稳定性进行分析,路堑开挖后产生的位移为1.2mm,最大主应力为6.3MPa,运营状态下静力荷载20kPa,在此基础上分析拟建公路附近溶洞的稳定性。     

多语言编程在边坡有限元可靠度分析中的应用研究

文章采用多语言联合编程的方法进行边坡稳定的有限元可靠度分析.前处理部分采用的是有限元通用分析软件ANSYS的APDL语言,用其编写的程序模块可方便地用于有限元网格的划分,以得到有限元计算所需的结点坐标信息、单元结点编号信息、约束结点自由度信息等内容;有限元主程序采用的是VISUAL FORTRAN语言,它可进行基于强度折减法及基于滑面应力分析法的边坡稳定定值法有限元计算,以求解边坡的安全系数及其对应的滑面位置;亦可进行基于强度折减法及基于滑面应力分析法的边坡稳定有限元可靠度计算,以求解边坡的可靠指标及其对应的滑面位置;后处理部分采用的是MATLAB语言,它可方便灵活地绘制网格图、等值线图、滑面位置图及曲线图等各种图形.各种语言之间通过文本文件进行数据的传递,不必另外编写各语言间的接口程序.     

应用PLAXIS有限元程序分析平硐围岩稳定性

针对洛宁吉家洼金矿通往矿区的PD868S平硐工程,分别采用上覆岩层最小厚度计算法和PLAXIS有限元程序对平硐硐室围岩的稳定性进行验算,计算结果基本一致。     

路基高陡边坡稳定性有限元分析

利用有限元数值分析方法对长白山区路基高陡边坡岩体崩塌、落石的稳定性进行了研究 ,在分析路基高陡边坡岩体应力分布基础上 ,提出了由于边坡岩体软弱岩层在上覆硬岩的压力作用下产生蠕变 ,从而很大程度上影响整个边坡稳定性的结论 ,为以后的高陡边坡工程设计与施工提供参考依据     

基于有限差分FLAC~(3D)的边坡稳定分析及工程对策

以鹤岗3052项目cE段边坡工程为背景,结合现场测试数据,运用有限差分法FLAC~(3D)对边坡稳定性进行数值模拟分析,探究坡体发生变形破坏的原因及其影响因素,进而提出相应的工程对策。分析结果表明:边坡局部白浆土夹层遇水软化、抗剪强度大幅降低且形成边坡滑塌破坏潜在滑动面,是坡体发生变形破坏的主要原因;白浆土分布是边坡稳定性的主要控制因素。据此,后续工程建设应对白浆土的分布进行详实准确勘察,结合工程地质条件对白浆土分布集中区域坡体采用削坡减载法处理。     

安徽省产学研合作分析及新型模式构建

随着经济发展与科技进步,产学研合作在我省逐渐发展起来。本文从我省产学研合作的现状出发,分析目前我省产学研合作存在的问题,并构建新型合作模式,认为工作的重点在于加强政府引导,提高中介机构服务和完善金融投资体系。     

基于有限元分析地下水对开挖基坑稳定性的影响

为研究基坑开挖过程中地下水渗流对基坑侧壁的稳定性变化,采用G-slope岩土工程计算软件,对某基坑开挖过程中的地下水渗流状态、基坑底部隆起位移以及基坑侧壁整体稳定性进行了数值模拟分析。分析结果表明:基坑开挖会影响地下水渗流状态,地下水位等势线向基坑开挖方向倾斜,饱和区等势线保持平行,非饱和区水位等势线变化较慢;在基坑开挖过程中伴随着坑底土体的隆起;坑壁整体稳定性随基坑开挖深度的增加而减小,当开挖至第四步时坑壁处于失稳状态。研究成果对存在地下水的基坑开挖具有一定的借鉴意义。     

Social networks and cooperation in hunter-gatherers

Social networks show striking structural regularities, and both theory and evidence suggest that networks may have facilitated the development of large-scale cooperation in humans. Here, we characterize the social networks of the Hadza, a population of hunter-gatherers in Tanzania. We show that Hadza networks have important properties also seen in modernized social networks, including a skewed degree distribution, degree assortativity, transitivity, reciprocity, geographic decay and homophily. We demonstrate that Hadza camps exhibit high between-group and low within-group variation in public goods game donations. Network ties are also more likely between people who give the same amount, and the similarity in cooperative behaviour extends up to two degrees of separation. Social distance appears to be as important as genetic relatedness and physical proximity in explaining assortativity in cooperation. Our results suggest that certain elements of social network structure may have been present at an early point in human history. Also, early humans may have formed ties with both kin and non-kin, based in part on their tendency to cooperate. Social networks may thus have contributed to the emergence of cooperation.     

生命的出现

近几十年来，研究人员从实验和哲学角度对起源于无活性化合物的生命进行了大量的研究。作者详细介绍了生命的转变过程。为了证明从无生命物质向最初细胞生命形式转变过程中系统复杂性的自发增加，该书结合一些合成和生物学的例子，分章描述了细胞模型的自组装、出现、自身复制、自我制造（autopoiesis）、合成隔间以及构造等系统过程。