Consideration of microbiology in modelling the near field of a L/ILW repository

Summary The long-term safety of proposed repositories for nuclear waste is demonstrated by the use of chains of mathematical models describing the performance of the various barriers to radionuclide mobilisation, transport, release into the biosphere and eventual uptake by man. Microbial contamination of such repositories is to be expected, and hence the extent and consequences of microbial activity must also be quantified. This paper describes a modelling approach to determine the maximum microbial activity in the near field of a repository, which can thus be related to maximum possible degradation of performance. The approach is illustrated by application to a proposed Swiss repository for low- and intermediate-level waste (L/ILW), which is immobilised in concrete and emplaced in a marl host rock.     

The microbiology programme for UK Nirex

Summary The Nirex Safety Assessment Research Programme (NSARP) considers the effect of microbial action on the repository near field. The upper limit of growth for natural soil organisms appears to be pH 12.25. Environmental conditions in the repository will probably allow slow growth particularly on damp wastes. Experiments using packed columns of waste and concrete have shown that an extremely high pH is not conducive to rapid microbial growth. However, viable populations can exist within regions adjacent to the concrete, e.g. where a surface film coats the concrete. Carbon dioxide and methane will be produced by microbial action within the repository but actual rates of production will be lower than that in a domestic landfill. The cellulosic fraction of waste is the main determinant of cell growth. It appears to be the sugar acids arising from alkaline degradation of cellulose which cause enhanced plutonium solubility. The potentially beneficial reduction of chemically derived polyhydroxy acids by the microorganisms is possible. A mathematical model has been constructed to describe the main features of biological action in the repository.     

The Swedish final repository and the possible risk of interactions by microbial activities

Summary The final Swedish repository for low- and intermediate-level nuclear waste is described, and some of the possible problems caused by microbial activity during storage are discussed. Microbial degradation of bitumen constitutes one of the greatest risks in the silo part of a repository. The production of carbon dioxide due to both aerobic and anaerobic processes might lead to a decrease in the pH of the water, inducing corrosion of the metal construction and storage containers, with large amounts of hydrogen gas being produced. A risk assessment for the repository must thus take into account the various activities of microbes.     

Biodegradation of bitumen used for nuclear waste disposal

Summary Studies have been carried out to test microbial degradation of bitumen used for encapsulating radioactive waste in Sweden. Microorganisms have been isolated that degrade bitumen. In ong-term tests under conditions simulating those in the silo part of the final repository for low-and intermediate-level radioactive waste, both aerobic and anaerobic degradation of bitumen has been found, equivalent to 0.6–1.5 moles CO₂/month·mg bitumen and 1.1–1.5 moles CO₂/month·mg bitumen, respectively.     

Modelling of microbial degradation processes: The behaviour ofmicroorganisms in a waste repository

Summary In a repository for radioactive disposal the waste material is kept in place by several shells and boundaries to prevent a long term recycling of the material into the environment. Present investigations on various chemical and biological processes can be extrapolated into future centuries only with great uncertainty. Models may therefore be a good tool to forecast processes which may occur within the repository and to estimate whether the barriers present will prevent the leaching of waste material within a given time span. A mathematical model is described based on an experimental laboratory setup, a microcosm described by West et al.^19–22 simulating in a laboratory system repository conditions for a Swiss L/ILW repository. It includes microbial as well as physico-chemical processes. These simulations indicate that biological processes such as gas formation or proton release should also be included into the safety assessment of the repositories.     

Microbial influence on the sorption of137Cs onto materials relevant to the geological disposal of radioactive waste

Summary A major concern in the geological containment of radioactive wastes is the speed of movement of radionuclides from the repository, after their eventual leaching and release, into the geosphere and finally into the biosphere. Radionuclide sorption onto the host rock is an important retarding mechanism. Experimental evidence shows that the presence of microbes in this environment influences the sorption capabilities of the host rock. Their presence can decrease the amount of retardation of¹³⁷Cs, a common radionuclide in radioactive waste, by the solid phase. Sorption methods and data analysis procedures are presented and the implications for radioactive waste disposal assessments are discussed.     

Microbial potential in deep-sea sediments

Summary In spite of high pressures and low temperatures in abyssal sediments of the North Atlantic Ocean, bacterial activity is evident and highest in the top 10 cm. At these locations the input of degradable organic material to the deep-sea bottom is low. Oxygen, therefore, remains the dominant oxidant in surface sediments. Although alternative electron acceptors like nitrate, oxidized manganese and sulfate are present in large amounts, they are not utilized in this natural habitat. In sediment cores which were collected from the site for laboratory perturbation studies, it was possible to stimulate microbially mediated processes which are dormant in situ. When the oxygen supply was cut off, nitrate and manganese reduction occurred. Denitrification was the major process observed in the upper anoxic layers, while nitrate-ammonification and manganese reduction occurred in deeper sediment strata (4–8 cm). This is evidence for the presence of a variety of different bacteria and of an anaerobic heterotrophic potential. Most of the activity is located in the top 10 cm of these sediments. The shift to anaerobiosis initiates microbial activities through which metals are converted into their mobile species at the lowered redox potential. Evaluation of the suitability of the deep sea as a repository for waste materials will have to account for the large dormant potential of microbial activities and the consequences of their release by changing the environmental conditions at the sea floor.     

Phytosterols from pressmud residue obtained after methanogenic fermentation

Summary Pressmud, a sugar factory waste, was fermented with methanogenic bacteria in an anaerobic fermenter for 40 days at 31±2°C. The pressmud residue obtained after fermentation was used as a source for the extraction of phytosterols. The anaerobic digestion degraded the organic matter and resulted in enrichment of phytosterols from 0.33% in the pressmud to 3.05% in the residue. Refluxing of 100 g of residue with benzene, petroleum ether, and ethanolic KOH (1051) yielded 8 g of soft cake, which on further fractionation with methylcyanide and isopropanol gave three fractions: 1) a crude mixture of phytosterols, 2) resin, and 3) undigested organic matter. The crude mixture of phytosterols after purification on neutral alumina followed by GLC analysis resulted in the separation of 68.7% of -sitosterol, 18.4% of stigmasterol and 12.9% of campesterol and brassicasterol together. Phytosterols were extracted more easily from fermented than from unfermented samples, because of biodegration of lipophilic compounds by the methanogenic bacteria.Acknowledgments. S.K.S. and J.C.S. are thankful to the authorities of the U.G.C., New Delhi, for the award of Teacher-fellowships. R.C.S., R.A.K.S. and D.K.M. are thankful to the authorities of the C.S.I.R., New Delhi, for providing R.A., S.R.F., and J.R.F., respectively. Reprint request to S.N.M.     

Microbial legradation of bitumen

Summary Bitumen is commonly employed as a matrix for the long-term storage of low and intermediate level radioactive waste. As bitumen can be degraded by microbial activity, it is of great significance to determine the rates at which it may occur in nuclear waste repositories.Experiments have been carried out under optimal culture conditions using bitumen with a highly increased surface area. The potential of different microbial consortia to degrade bitumen has been examined. The investigations showed clearly that bitumen-degrading organisms are ubiquitous. In general the organisms formed biofilms on the accessible substrate surface area. Under oxic culture conditions a bitumen degradation rate of 20–50 g bitumen · m^–2· y^–1 leading to a CO₂ liberation of 15–40 l was observed. Anoxic conditions yielded a 100 times smaller degradation rate of 0.2–0.6 g bitumen · m^–2 · y^–1 and a CO₂ production of 0.15–0.45 l.Based on linear extrapolation the experimentally determined degradation rates would lead to a 25–70% deterioration of the bitumen matrix under oxic and 0.3–0.8% under anoxic conditions within 1000 years.     

多环芳烃的毒理学特征与生物标记物研究

多环芳烃主要来自于碳氢化合物不充分燃烧,在大气、水体和土壤中广泛地存在,由于多环芳烃具有疏水性、致癌性、致畸性、致突变性和生物难降解性,因此多环芳烃被看作是持久性有机污染物的主要代表。目前,多环芳烃的毒理学研究是环境科学领域的热点问题之一,研究主要集中在多环芳烃及其在环境中的降解和转化产物在体内的吸收、分布、排泄和代谢转化,以及阐明多环芳烃对人体毒作用的发生、发展和消除的各种条件和机理。生物标记物是有机污染物风险评价的核心内容,可以探索多环芳烃对人体健康损害的早期观察指标,即用最灵敏的探测手段,找出环境污染物作用于机体后最初出现的生物学变化,以便及早发现并设法排除。本文阐述了环境中多环芳烃的来源、性质和分布,评述了多环芳烃的毒理学研究进展,并对今后多环芳烃的毒理学的发展方向进行了论述。     

持久性有机污染物研究的国际发展动态

持久性有机污染物(POPs)是指对于生物代谢、光解、化学分解等具有很强的抵抗能力的天然或人工合成的有机污染物。本文全面介绍了从有机化学品开始广泛应用到POPs成为研究热点和国际行动的焦点这一历史过程，其中详细介绍了联合国环境署18／92号决议通过后展开的国际行动。并列举了当今POPs研究的热点问题和发达国家在该领域的研究计划。     

Ethanol from cellulose

Summary An excess of organic waste, containing up to 60% cellulose and hemicellulose is produced worldwide. The conversion of this cellulosic material to ethanol is discussed: The two-step process consisting of a hydrolysis step to glucose and the subsequent fermentation by yeasts; and the one-step process, a fermentation of the cellulose by the anaerobic thermophileClostridium thermocellum, or by a thermophilic, anaerobic, defined mixed culture. The use of the latter seems to be very feasible., To achieve an economic process, it is suggested to combine this approach with a thermophilic fermentation of the effluent and/or stillage obtained to produce methane.Acknowledgment. Part of this work was supported by Energy and Research Development Administration contract number EY-76-509-0888-M003, and by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft.     

Microbial energetics applied to waste repositories

Summary Through their catalytic abilities microbes can increase rates of chemical reactions which would take a very long time to reach equilibrium under abiotic conditions. Microbes also alter the concentration and composition of chemicals in the environment, thereby creating new conditions for further biological and chemical reactions. Rates of degradation and possible indirect consequences on leaching rates in waste repositories are a function of the presence or absence of microbes and of the conditions which allow them to become catalytically active.Microbially mediated reactions are no exception to the rule that all chemical processes are basically governed by thermodynamic laws. Naturally occurring processes proceed in the direction that leads to the minimal potential energy level attained when equilibrium is reached. A continuous supply of energy to an ecosystem in the form of biochemically unstable compounds maintains non-equilibrium conditions, a prerequisite for all chemotrophic life. Energy is released as a chemical reaction progresses towards equilibrium. Microbes scavenge that portion of the free energy of reaction (G_r) which can be converted into biochemically usable forms during the chemical oxidation processes. As electrontransfer catalysts, the microorganisms mediate reactions which are thermodynamically possible thereby stimulating reaction rates. Decomposition and mineralization in systems without a continuous supply of substrates and oxidants will lead to equilibria with minimal free energy levels at which point further microbial action would cease. The differences in the free energy levels of reactions (G_r), represent the maximal energy which is available to microorganisms for maintenance and growth. How much of the released free energy will be conserved in energy-rich bonds, compounds (e.g. ATP), and chemical potentials (e.g. emf) useful for biosynthesis and biological work is characteristic for the microbes involved and the processes and metabolic routes employed.Materials whose elements are not present in the most oxidized form attainable in the oxic environment of our planet are potentially reactive. Microbial activities are associated only with chemical reactions whose free energy changes are exergonic. This should be kept in mind for all investigations related to the role of microbes in repositories or in the layout of proper waste storage conditions. Rigorous application of thermodynamic concepts to environmental microbiology allows one to develop models and design experiments which are often difficult to conceive of in complex natural systems from physiological information alone. Thermodynamic considerations also aid in selecting proper deposition conditions and in carrying out thoughtful experiments in areas related to microbial ecology of waste repositories.     

固废制备的填充剂中NaCl对橡胶品质的影响

将碱厂白泥、造纸白泥、含油污泥等固体废弃物加工为橡胶填充剂是一种较好的资源化利用技术,但这些填充剂中往往残留有一定量的NaCl,可能对橡胶制品的性能造成一定影响.本文通过向天然橡胶中添加含有NaCl的填充剂研究了NaCl对橡胶制品性能的影响.实验表明,NaCl在橡胶加工过程中作为晶核起异相结晶作用,可提高橡胶的交联性和热稳定性;在实验的含量范围内,NaCl对填充剂粉体的分散性、硫化时间稍有影响,但橡胶交联性明显提高;硬度、拉伸强度、拉断伸长率等主要力学性能变化不大;老化后的橡胶力学性能基本不变,且部分力学性能高于对照样品.研究揭示,只要NaCl的含量控制在4%以内,基本不会对橡胶工程和橡胶制品性能产生影响;该研究成果有利于含NaCl固体废弃物资源化利用新技术的开发与应用.     

Microbial dissolution and stabilization of toxic metals and radionuclides in mixed wastes

Summary Microbial activity in mixed wastes can have an appreciable effect on the dissolution or precipitation of toxic metals and radionuclides. Fundamental information on microbial dissolution and stabilization (immobilization) of toxic metals and radionuclides, in particular actinides and fission products, in nuclear wastes under various microbial process conditions, e.g., aerobic, denitrifying, iron-reducing, fermentative, sulfate-reducing, and methanogenic conditions is very limited. Microbial transformations of typical waste components such as metal oxides, metal coprecipitates, naturally occurring minerals, and metal organic complexes are reviewed. Such information can be useful in the development of 1) predictive models on the fate and long-term transport of toxic metals and radionuclides from waste disposal sites, and 2) biotechnological applications of waste treatment leading to volume reduction and stabilization as wall as recovery and recycling of radionuclides and toxic metals.     

Life without oxygen: what can and what cannot?

The basic principles involved in the biotransformation of organic carbon compounds in the absence of molecular oxygen (dioxygen) are presented in this paper. The role of various electron acceptors during the breakdown of organic compounds is discussed and the metabolic end-products expected are summarized. The different biochemical possibilities and strategies for the anaerobic degradation of organic matter and the metabolic response of some organisms to anaerobiosis are elucidated. Positive and negative effects of anaerobiosis on environmentally relevant processes and their influence on man and on animals are reviewed. Finally, some examples of the biotechnological application of anaerobic processes are presented.     

Microbial cycling of volatile organic sulfur compounds

Microbial cycling of volatile organic sulfur compounds (VOSCs), especially dimethyl sulfide (DMS) and methanethiol (MT), is intensively studied because these compounds play an important role in the processes of global warming, acid precipitation, and the global sulfur cycle. VOSC concentrations in freshwater sediments are low due to the balance between the formation and degradation of these compounds. These reactions occur for the greater part at the oxic/anoxic interphase of sediment and water column. In contrast to marine ecosystems, where dimethylsulfoniopropionate is the main precursor of MT and DMS, in freshwater ecosystems, VOSCs are formed mainly by methylation of sulfide and to a lesser extent from the degradation of S-containing amino acids. One of the major routes for DMS and MT formation through sulfide methylation is anaerobic O-demethylation of methoxylated aromatic compounds. Inhibition studies have revealed that the major part of the endogenously produced MT and DMS is degraded anaerobically by methanogens. The major bacterial groups involved in formation and consumption of VOSCs are described.     

Evaluation of cement degradation induced by the metabolic products of two fungal strains

Summary During their metabolism, microorganisms can produce acids able to bring about the degradation of cement. Two acid-producing alkalophilic fungal strains have been isolated from soil, a strain ofAspergillus niger which produces gluconic and oxalic acid and ofMycelia sterila which produces gluconic and malic acid. After eleven months of contact the acids produced byAspergillus dissolved portlandite with a low leaching of calcium, increased the cement porosity by 11.4%, and reduced the bending strength by 78%. The second strain is responsible for a significant dissolution of portlandite with a leaching of calcium of 4.2% of the initial content, an increase of the porosity of 11%, and a loss of the bending strength of 62%. Direct contact of mycelia with the cement surface is not necessary for effective dissolution to take place. Low pH and a high temperature favor the the production of acids.     

Autophagy and other vacuolar protein degradation mechanisms

Autophagic degradation of cytoplasm (including protein, RNA etc.) is a non-selective bulk process, as indicated by ultrastructural evidence and by the similarity in autophagic sequestration rates of various cytosolic enzymes with different half-lives. The initial autophagic sequestration step, performed by a poorly-characterized organelle called a phagophore, is subject tofeedback inhibition by purines and amino acids, the effect of the latter being potentiated by insulin and antagonized by glucagon. Epinephrine and other adrenergic agonists inhibit autophagic sequestration through a prazosin-sensitive ₁-adrenergic mechanism. The sequestration is also inhibited by cAMP and by protein phosphorylation as indicated by the effects of cyclic nucleotide analogues, phosphodiesterase inhibitors and okadaic acid.Asparagine specifically inhibits autophagic-lysosomal fusion without having any significant effects on autophagic sequestration, on intralysosomal degradation or on the endocytic pathway. Autophaged material that accumulates in prelysosomal vacuoles in the presence of asparagine is accessible to endocytosed enzymes, revealing the existence of an amphifunctional organelle, the amphisome. Evidence from several cell types suggests that endocytosis may be coupled to autophagy to a variable extent, and that the amphisome may play a central role as a collecting station for material destined for lysosomal degradation.Protein degradation can also take place in a salvage compartment closely associated with the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). In this compartment unassembled protein chains are degraded by uncharacterized proteinases, while resident proteins roturn to the ER and assembled secretory and membrane proteins proceed through the Golgi apparatus. In thetrans-Golgi network some proteins are proteolytically processed by Ca²⁺-dependent proteinases; furthermore, this compartment sorts proteins to lysosomes, various membrane domains, endosomes or secretory vesicles/granules. Processing of both endogenous and exogenous proteins can occurr in endosomes, which may play a particularly important role in antigen processing and presentation. Proteins in endosomes or secretory compartments can either be exocytosed, or channeled to lysosomes for degradation. The switch mechanisms which decide between these options are subject to bioregulation by external agents (hormones and growth factors), and may play an important role in the control of protein uptake and secretion.     

Mylip makes an Idol turn into regulation of LDL receptor

High blood low-density-lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol is a serious health problem among an increased number of patients in the Western world. Statins and other cholesterol lowering drugs have proven to be beneficial as therapy but are not optimal and show adverse effects in some patients. The LDL receptor is a crucial determinant of cholesterol metabolism in the body and amenable for drug interventions. Novel insights into the physiology of this receptor come from studies on the ubiquitination and degradation of LDL receptor by the ubiquitin ligase Mylip/Idol that is induced in cells by the nuclear receptor, LXR. This may open up new possibilities in the future to influence LDL receptor levels and cholesterol metabolism pharmacologically in various diseases.