Behavioural ecology of Australian gall thrips (Insecta,Thysanoptera)

Collections, observations and experiments were used to investigate the behavioural ecology of gall thrips (Thysanoptera: Phlaeothripidae) in New South Wales and Queensland, Australia. Data are presented on aspects of gall morphology, male and female morphology, behaviour, life cycles, and sex ratios for six gall-forming species, five species of inquilines (invaders that do not form galls), and one genus that uses secretions to glue phyllodes (modified petioles) together. During gall foundation on phyllodes of Acacia pendula, females of Kladothrips rugosus Froggatt fight other females to the death, males fight other males to the death, and one female or one adult of each sex remains alive within the gall to breed. In addition to the live adults, half of newly found galls contained dead bodies of from one to 13 males and females, which were apparently killed in fights. In Oncothrips tepperi Karny, which forms galls on Acacia oswaldii, single females found new galls, and females engage in lethal fighting during the period from gall initiation until closure. First-generation broods of Oncothrips tepperi comprise winged males and winged females with a sex ratio of about 1:6 female biased. Each gall also contains several wing-reduced adults with larger forelegs than winged adults, which probably either fight among themselves or defend their siblings from gall invaders. Adults of Oncothrips tepperi breed in the galls for two or more generations, whereas in all of the other species studied on Acacia only one generation occurs in a gall. Females of the inquiline Koptothrips flavicornis invade young, first-generation galls of Oncothrips tepperi, kill the foundling female, and produce their own offspring. Single females of Oncothrips antennatus (Moulton) form galls on Acacia aneura, and apparently do not fight. Winged females of Oncothrips antennatus have smaller forelegs, relative to their body size, than do winged females of Oncothrips tepperi. In Onychothrips arotrum Mound and Onychothrips tepperi (Uzel), single females from galls on Acacia aneura. In each species, females engage in lethal fighting during gall initiation. The sex ratio of Onychothrips arotrum broods is about 1:18 female biased. The inquiline Csirothrips watsoni Mound invades galls of Onychothrips arotrum, apparently after most or all of the offspring have left, and breeds inside. Females of this inquiline will kill live Onychothrips arotrum inside the galls, and they apparently plug gall entrances with cast O. arotrum exuviae. Iotatubothrips crozieri Mound and Crespi is involved in the formation of large, woody galls on stems of Casuarina, perhaps in association with a microorganism. They breed in these galls for many generations. Galls contain several to thousands of individuals, and the adult sex ratio is about 1:4 female biased. Adults of the inquilines Thaumatothrips froggatti and Phallothrips houstoni Mound and Crespi invade these galls, kill the Iotatubothrips adults, and breed therein. The Iotatubothrips occasionally attempt, ineffectually, to fight off the invaders, and they apparently make partitions within the gall to protect themselves from takeover. Adults of Lichanothrips spp. glue phyllodes of Acacia harpophylla together using eggs and patches of secretion, and they breed in the resultant narrow space. Xanothrips xantes Mound breed in these spaces after the Lichanothrips have left. Fighting in Kladothrips rugosus, Oncothrips tepperi and Onychothrips tepperi involves two adults rearing up head to head, sparring with their enlarged, armed forelegs raised, and attempting to grasp and hold their opponent with their forelegs and drive their sharply pointed fore-tarsal teeth into their opponent's body. Females of Onychothrips arotrum also grasp, stab and kill with their forelegs, but they have not been observed to rear up head to head. Three of the inquiline species, Csirothrips watsoni, Thaumatothrips froggatti and Phallothrips houstoni, kill the original gall inhabitants by extending their forelegs directly in front of their bodies, tilting their heads back, remaining in this position for variable periods of time, and sharply pulling their armed fore tibiae towards the fore femora when their victim is near. Inquilinism in gall thrips may have evolved from lethal intraspecific fighting. Certain aspects of behaviour and morphology in Australian gall thrips, such as high prevalence of lethal fighting, gall ‘plugging’ in Csirothrips watsoni, attempted gall defence and apparent formation of partitions in Iotatubothrips crozieri, and the presence of wing-reduced adults in Oncothrips tepperi, indicate that these species exhibit some of the most complex behaviour thus far discovered in Thysanoptera.     

The Thysanoptera Haplothripini (Insecta: Phlaeothripidae) of Iran

In Iran, 4 genera and 27 species are recorded of the Thysanoptera tribe Haplothripini (Phlaeothripidae, Phlaeothripinae): Dolicholepta Priesner with 1 species, Haplothrips Amyot and Serville with 23 species, Neoheegeria Schmutz with 2 species, and Plicothrips Bhatti with 1 species. Identification keys are provided to these taxa. Three new synonyms are established: H. inoptatus Priesner is a junior synonym of H. globiceps Bagnall, H. iraniensis Priesner is a junior synonym of H. maroccanus Priesner, and H. scythicus Knechtel is a junior synonym of H. leucanthemi (Schrank). Reports of H. cerealis Priesner from Iran are considered to be misidentifications of H. tritici Kurdjumov, and comments are made on the identity of several predatory species related to H. subtilissimus (Haliday) and H. globiceps Bagnall. Several character states used for recognizing taxa in Haplothrips are discussed, and available biological data for each species are presented.     

Diversity and abundance of fungivorous thrips (Thysanoptera) associated with leaf-litter and bark across forest types and two tree genera in subtropical Australia

Leaf-litter thrips were much more common and diverse in dry sclerophyll forest than in wetter forest types in subtropical southeast Queensland, Australia. In dry sclerophyll forest, the species composition of thrips in leaf-litter was strongly differentiated from the thrips fauna associated with bark of the trees Eucalyptus major and Acacia melanoxylon (4 of 34 species in common). The species composition of bark-dwelling thrips was similar across the two tree species and also across two eucalypts with different bark types, Eucalyptus major (flaky) and Eucalyptus siderophloia (rough). The diversity of thrips from the leaf-litter was not differentiated across all of these tree species. Virtually all thrips collected were Phlaeothripidae, subfamilies Idolothripinae and Phlaeothripinae. Idolothripinae were associated almost exclusively with leaf-litter, but Phlaeothripinae were in leaf-litter and bark. The association of fungal-feeding thrips with dry sclerophyll forest raises questions about their ecological requirements and the role they play in nutrient cycling.     

Psocoptera (Insecta) from Bermuda

Seventeen species of Psocoptera are recorded from Bermuda, increasing the known number from three. Four new species are described: Echmepteryx atlantica n. sp., Caecilius bermudensis n. sp., Indiopsocus hilburni n. sp., and I. nebulosus n. sp. The latter two species appear to be closely related and two alternative hypotheses are proposed for their origin. Ectopsocus spilotus Thornton and Wong is recorded outside the central Pacific area for the first time. The species are assigned to four categories according to probable duration of time on Bermuda and probable source of original invaders: (1) endemics (four species); (2) species with wide distributions in the tropics and subtropics, not restricted to islands and sea coasts (four species); (3) species largely restricted to sea coasts and islands, not necessarily tropical (three species); (4) species widely distributed in southeastern United States, not restricted to the sea coast or the subtropical region (five species).     

A new Brazilian species of Heterothrips (Insecta: Thysanoptera) co-existing with ants in the flowers of Peixotoa tomentosa (Malpighiaceae)

Heterothrips peixotoa Del-Claro, Marullo and Mound is described as new. It has remarkably pale forewings, and lives in the flowers of a malpighiaceous shrub in Brazilian cerrado. The sepals of each flower are S-shaped and enclose a central cavity within which the thrips live and breed. Although some large ants are unable to penetrate this cavity, other ants are small enough to enter the space between the petals and sepals, and this leads to a reduction in thrips numbers. Several other members of this genus of thrips are known from the flowers of other species of Malpighiaceae.     

Affinities,origin and adaptive features of the Australian Desert Goby Chlamydogobius eremius (Zietz, 1896) (Teleostei: Gobiidae)

The Desert Goby Chlamydogobius eremius (Zietz, 1896) is a gobiid teleost fish endemic to the Central Australian Basin, occurring mostly in artesian springs. Generic features for Chlamydogobius Whitley are supplied with emphasis on the modified head lateral-line system and on osteology. Comparisons with other Indo-Pacific genera suggest closest affinity with Mugilogobius Smitt, within a monophyletic grouping which also includes Weberogobius Koumans, Redigobius Herre, Pseudogobius Aurich, Brachygobius Bleeker, Hemigobius Bleeker, and Pandaka Herre. The origin of Ch. eremius is considered in the light of the Tertiary and Quaternary climatic history of the Central Australian Basin. The adaptiveness of certain morphological and life-history features found in Ch. eremius, such as elongate gut, black peritoneum, short pelvic disc, and large egg-size, is also discussed in relation to present habitat.     

Apelaunothripini from the Philippines (Thysanoptera: Phlaeothripidae)

Summary

The relationships of the phlaeothripine tribe Apelaunothripini is discussed. Four genera and thirteen species are recorded from the Philippines, including the following two new genera and nine new species: Apelaunothrips cephalicus sp. nov., A. fasciatus sp. nov., A. flavicornis sp. nov., A. marginalis sp. nov., A. philippinensis sp. nov., A. rostratus sp. nov., A. simpliceps sp. nov., Lizalothrips luzonensis gen. and sp. nov., Paradexiothrips bispinosus gen. and sp. nov. Keys are provided to the four genera included in the Apelaunothripini, and to the ten Apelaunothrips species from the Philippines.     

Revision of the genus Cylindrommata Tippmann (Insecta: Coleoptera: Cerambycidae)

The monotypic genus Cylindrommata is revised, and three new species are described from Brazil. Cylindrommata aurantia sp. nov. is recorded from the states of Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo, and differs from other species principally by having the prothorax tuberculate at the sides, pronotum subplane and elytra orangish. Cylindrommata lustrata sp. nov. is from Minas Gerais, and has the prothorax without tubercles, rounded at the sides, and elytra short and black with dark-blue reflections. Cylindrommata susanae sp. nov. is from Minas Gerais, Rio de Janeiro, and São Paulo, and has the prothorax without tubercles, parallel at the sides, and elytra yellowish. A key to the species is provided, and all the species are illustrated.     

Mites of the family Oppiidae (Acari: Oribatida) from Turkey

Two new oppiid species (Gressittoppia luxtoni, Anomaloppia ozkani) and one new subspecies (Graptoppia sundensis acuta) are described from Turkish soils, and two known species are recorded for the first time. The genera Gressittoppia, Anomaloppia and Graptoppia are redefined and keys provided to the known species.     

Life cycle variation and adaptation in jumping plant lice (Insecta: Hemiptera: Psylloidea): a global synthesis

This paper integrates the scattered information on the life histories of the jumping plant lice or psyllids, examining those aspects of their biology that contribute to successful life cycle completion. Variation in life history parameters is reviewed across the world's psyllids and the relative importance of phylogeny and environment, including host‐plant growth strategy, in determining life history strategies is assessed. Elements of life cycles considered include: development rate and voltinism, response to high temperature and drought, cold‐hardiness and overwintering strategy, seasonal polymorphism, diapause, metabolism, host‐plant selection and range, phenological and other adaptations to host plants, disease transmission and host amelioration, dispersal, reproduction and mate finding. Life history parameters are analyzed for 342 species. While a phylogenetic signal can be identified within the data, the main drivers for life history adaptation are environmental temperatures and water availability, acting directly on the psyllids or mediated through their host plants.     

Revision of the American Pupisoma species (Gastropoda: Pupilloidea)

The American species of Pupisoma Stoliczka (Gastropoda: Pupilloidea) are revised. Five species are recognized. Pupisoma puella Hylton Scott has been synonymized with P. dioscoricola (C. B. Adams). This species occurs from southern USA through the Caribbean and Central America to the Galapagos Islands and to southern Brazil and northern Argentina. Pupisoma galapagorum Pilsbry, P. bailyi Pilsbry, and P. latens Hylton Scott have been synonymized with P. comicolense H. B. Baker. This species is distributed from Mexico to the Galapagos Islands, southern Brazil, and northern Argentina. Pupisoma costulata sp. n. from Andean forests in Colombia is described as new. The range of P. macneilli (Clapp) extends from southern USA through the Caribbean and Central America to southern Brazil and northern Argentina. A neotype has been designated for P. mediamericanum Pilsbry. Pupisoma michoacanense Pilsbry is a synonym of this species. This species occurs from Mexico to Colombia and on Jamaica.     

Elytro-tergal stridulation in weevils (Insecta: Coleoptera: Curculionoidea)

Many Curculionidae, Scolytidae and Platypodidae stridulate by rubbing a plectrum on tergite VII against a subapical file on the elytral underside. The file on the right elytron may be smaller than that on the left, or absent; on either elytron it usually comprises a series of parallel ridges. The plectrum generally consists of one or more pair of setiferous tubercles, although other structures are sometimes employed. This stridulatory system (‘type 1’) is found in members of 14 curculionid subfamilies and in Scolytidae. Platypodidae have a similar and probably homologous organ, although the morphology of the file differs somewhat from that found elsewhere and the plectrum is a simple flange. Within Curculionidae three other elytro-tergal stridulatory systems have been found. Firstly, in some Cossoninae and Molytinae, the file is a row of tubercles on tergite VII and the plectrum is a ridge on the elytron (‘type 2’); this is newly reported here. Secondly, females of Ithyporini, some Camptorhinini and some Cryptorhynchini have part of the wing binding patch on tergite VII modified to act as a file, with a plectrum on the elytra (‘type 3’). Thirdly, some Amycterinae have a file of ridges on tergite VII and a plectrum on the elytra (‘type 4’), apparently an autapomorphy of a restricted group of species. In addition, some Curculionidae have a plectrum on the hind femur and a file on the abdominal sternum (some Cryptorhynchinae) or elytron (some Otidocephalinae). Scolytidae have at least three other stridulatory organs: two on the head and one involving the elytra and sternum VIII. Some systematic conclusions are drawn: the clear homology of the type 1 structures in Scolytidae and the majority of the stridulating Curculionidae indicates that the Curculionidae is paraphyletic with respect to the Scolytidae; Scolytidae should therefore be treated as a subfamily of Curculionidae. The structure of the platypodid file and plectrum provide equivocal information and do not aid resolution of the phylogenetic placement of this family. Monophyly of some Ithyporini and Camptorhinini is suggested by the distribution of type 3, but there is insufficient evidence to demonstrate paraphyly of the Cryptorhynchini. The distribution of type 2 does not indicate monophyly of the Cossoninae and Molytinae since the structures in the two are almost certainly homoplastic. All known records of elytro-tergal stridulatory organs in the Scolytidae, Platypodidae and Curculionidae are listed.     

Revision of the spider genus Ischnocolus Ausserer, 1871 (Mygalomorphae: Theraphosidae: Ischnocolinae)

The genus Ischnocolus is redefined based on type material, and extra specimens. Representatives of the genus are distinguished by clavate tarsal trichobothria arranged in median apical row; by the maxillae with lighter colour on prolateral edge. Males of the genus Ischnocolus Ausserer are recognized by the cheliceral intumescence, sigmoid ventral furrow on palpal tibia, unequal cymbium lobes, tibial apophysis absent, great number of spines on ventral side of tibia I, and male superior tarsal claws bipectinate. Species included are: Ischnocolus valentinus (Dufour) [= I. holosericeus L. Koch, I. triangulifer Ausserer, I. algericus Thorell, I. fuscostriatus Simon, I. maroccanus (Simon), I. mogadorensis (Simon), I. numidus Simon, I. tripolitanus Caporiacco, Avicularia andalusiaca Simon], Ischnocolus hancocki Smith, Ischnocolus jickelii L. Koch (senior-synonym of Chaetopelma adenense Simon) and Ischnocolus ignoratus sp. nov. Ischnocolus tomentosus Thorell is considered incertae sedis. The following species are considered species inquirenda: I. tunetanus Pavesi and I. fasciculatus Strand. http://www.zoobank.org/urn:lsid:zoobank.org:pub:207143F4-A235-4411-96D4-D4787ABF271F     

Aquatic and semiaquatic Heteroptera of the Grand Canyon (Insecta: Hemiptera)

The aquatic and semiaquatic Hemiptera from 12 localities in Marble Canyon and Grand Canyon are reported, along with those from 1 locality in the Escalante Canyon. Fourteen species are recorded and compared to the water-bug fauna of the southwestern United States and western Mexico. Ochterus rotundus n. sp. is described from the Grand Canyon and the mountains of western Mexico.