Breeding biology of Phyllomedusa azurea Cope, 1862 and P. sauvagii Boulenger, 1882 (Anura) from the Cerrado,Central Brazil

Phyllomedusa azurea and P. sauvagii are treefrogs from seasonal dry environments of Central Brazil. We report on reproductive and other natural history features of these species. The study was carried out in Serra da Bodoquena, Mato Grosso do Sul, Brazil. The reproductive period was determined by the presence of vocalizing males, amplectant pair or presence of tadpoles. The reproductive effort was measured as the ratio of gonad mass in relation to body mass (BM). The reproduction of both species was correlated with the rainy season. Female P. sauvagii produced more eggs and their eggs were larger than those of P. azurea. Both species showed sexual dimorphism in relation to the snout–vent length (SVL) and BM. The mating behaviour of both species was similar. Males in both species showed similar reproductive efforts, but females of P. azurea invested more in gonads compared to the males of P. sauvagii. Phyllomedusa azurea showed a significant relation between SVL versus number of the mature eggs (NME), and P. sauvagii between SVL versus NME and BM versus ovarian mass.     

Reproductive biology of Scinax fuscomarginatus (Anura,Hylidae) in south‐eastern Brazil

The present study describes the reproductive biology of Scinax fuscomarginatus in a remnant of Cerrado in south‐eastern Brazil. Observations were made between September 2002 and March 2004 at Estação Ecológica de Itirapina, State of São Paulo, south‐eastern Brazil. Breeding activities occurred in lentic and temporary bodies of water during the rainy season. Scinax fuscomarginatus exhibited a prolonged breeding pattern and a lek mating system. Males were smaller than females and defended individual calling areas through acoustic and physical interactions. Resident males consistently won encounters, but did not differ in size or mass from intruder males. Satellite behaviour was observed, but no female or amplected pair interception was registered. Scinax fuscomarginatus exhibited low operational sex ratios and the general reproductive mode in which eggs are laid in the water and tadpoles are aquatic. Amplexus was axillary and the eggs were deposited at the bottom of temporary ponds. Details on oocytes, egg masses, and eggs are included.     

Age,body size and growth pattern of Argenteohyla siemersi pederseni (Anura: Hylidae) in northeastern Argentina

In this study we analysed the body size, age structure, age at maturity, longevity and growth pattern of Argenteohyla siemersi pederseni in north-eastern Argentina using skeletochronological methods. Body size was sexually dimorphic; females were significantly larger and heavier than males, regardless of age. As A. s. pederseni is an explosive breeder with only one reproductive episode per year, we assumed that each Line of Arrested Growth (LAG) observed was equivalent to one period of decreasing growth, LAGs reflecting a direct estimation of individual age. The minimum number of LAGs counted was two for males and three for females, but there was no sexual difference in longevity. The von Bertalanffy's growth coefficients (K) were higher in males than in females for both size and body mass. Females had a lower growth rate than males, took longer to reach the minimum maturation size, and were older and larger at reproduction.     

Not every drought is bad: quantifying reproductive effort in the harlequin frog Atelopus laetissimus (Anura: Bufonidae)

Atelopus laetissimus is an endemic and threatened harlequin frog from the high mountain forests of Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, Colombia. Knowledge of its reproductive biology is essential for understanding the intraspecific interactions that can help the conservation of Atelopus species. We quantified the energy, measured in body weight, invested by males and females of A. laetissimus for reproduction, and how this energetic investment is related to the survival of individuals and rainfall conditions in habitats during two years (2014 and 2015). Our results show plasticity in terms of reproductive phenology linked to rainfall with short- and long-duration breeding strategies. The first year of this study, 2014, had a precipitation level in accordance with the annual averages at the area. During this time frogs exhibit a short breeding period. Contrary to 2014, 2015 was a year with little precipitation, below the annual averages, which probably facilitated the females’ quick spawning in the creeks and a consequent reduction in the duration of amplexus and low breeding efforts by males. This, in turn, was related to a long breeding period that favors the survival and reproduction of males during the entire year. In 2014 we found a decrease of 25% to 30% body weight of potentially reproductive males, which may be attributed to a prolonged duration of amplectant events.     

Reproductive characteristics of to symtopic lizards species, Sceloporus gadoviae and Sceloporus jalapae (Squamata: Phyrnosomatidae), from Tehuacán Valley, Puebla, México

We studied the reproductive characteristics of 2 syntopic lizard species, Sceloporus gadoviae and Sceloporus jalapae (Phrynosomatidae). Specimens of S. gadoviae ( N = 105) and S. jalapae ( N = 41) were collected in a tropical arid forest from Tehuacán Valley, Puebla, México. Males of S. gadoviae reached sexual maturity at the same snoutvent length (SVL; 45.0 mm) as S. jalapae , and a similar pattern occurred in females of both species (SVL; 41.0 and 42.0 mm, respectively). Males of S. gadoviae exhibited reproductive activity throughout the year, with a longer activity during the dry (November to May) and part of the wet season (June to September). In contrast, reproductive activity in S. jalapae males occurred during the wet season (July to September). Females of S. gadoviae showed continuous reproduction, whereas females of S. jalapae exhibited seasonal reproduction. Mean SVL of sexually mature females was higher for S. gadoviae (￣ x ± s￣x = 50.4 ± 0.52) than for S. jalapae (46.0 ± 0.54, P S. gadoviae was lower (3.9 ± 0.14 eggs) than for S. jalapae (5.6 ± 0.43). There was no significant correlation between snout-vent length of females and clutch size of S. gadoviae ( r 2 = 0.22, P > 0.05) or S. jalapae ( r 2 = 0.48, P > 0.05). Our study suggests that although both species inhabit the same environment, they have different reproductive characteristics.     

Courtship,copulation and oviposition in the chalcedon checkerspot,Euphydryas chalcedona (Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae)

In this report we describe some aspects of the reproductive biology of a population of the chalcedon checkerspot, Euphydryas chalcedona, in central Arizona. Successful courtship in this species lasts about a minute and has a form similar to that of other nymphalids. During copulation the male forms a spermatophore within the female's bursa copulatrix that represents about 7% of the male's body weight. After copulation females may remate and older females may have mated as many as three times. The spermatophore deflates as time since deposition passes. Females oviposit every other day on average and lay their eggs in clusters. These data confirm previous brief reports of courtship structure and spermatophore size for E. chalcedona. Questions are raised about the control of receptivity in this species and the function of the mating plug.     

Occurrence of sexual morphs in Trama troglodytes von Heyden, 1837 (Hemiptera,Aphididae)

The root-feeding aphids of the tribe Tramini have been cited as a possible case of ancient apomixis, as there are no substantiated records in the literature of a functional bisexual generation, even in common and well-known European species. The karyotypic variation found in this group, involving considerable structural heterozygosity within species, also pointed to the decay of diploidy that would be an expected consequence of loss of sexuality and absence of meiosis. However, we have now found a small number of oviparae (mating females) and males in populations of the common species Trama troglodytes. Fertilized eggs were not obtained, but adult oviparae contained large, yolky eggs. The single adult male was apterous, small and blind, but had fully developed mouthparts and genitalia, and contained mature sperm. Both sexual morphs are described, and the karyotrypic variation is reassessed in the light of these findings. Occasional sexual reproduction is in concordance with recent molecular evidence that some recombination occurs in T. troglodytes and related species.     

Long copulations and post-copulatory ‘escort’ behaviour in the locust leaf miner,Odontota dorsalis (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)

The adult behaviour of Odontota dorsalis on its host plant Robinia pseudo-acacia was studied by following marked individuals in nature. Copulations often lasted several hours, and were characteristically followed by long escort phases in which males remain mounted atop females. Pairing lasted as long as several days. Most pairs broke up around the time of day when most females were ovipositing. Females normally laid a small cluster of eggs once per day. Both sexes mated repeatedly, and females did not resist copulations.

Long pairings in O. dorsalis may have evolved because the encounter rate between the sexes is high and costs to the female low. It is suggested that escort behaviour will be found in many other species with similar ecology and in which males remain mounted on females while copulating.     

Immature stages of Chinavia musiva (Berg, 1878): a unique pattern in the morphology of Chinavia Orian, 1965 (Hemiptera,Pentatomidae)1

Specimens of Chinavia musiva were collected in Parque Estadual do Espinilho (Barra do Quaraí County, RS, Brazil). Insects were reared under controlled conditions (24±1°C; RH 70±10%; 12h L:12h D), and fed on green beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.). Eggs of C. musiva differ from the pattern observed in other species of the genus due to chorion colour and surface, and aero‐micropylar processes, number and shape. Exclusive features of the species in the nymphal stage are head and thorax dull; variegated pattern of abdomen, and openings of the scent glands in conspicuous tubercles. Developmental time was, on average, 52 days; females laid more frequently egg masses with 14 or 42 eggs. Females collected from the field as nymphs exhibited higher reproductive performance than females reared on green beans as nymphs and adults, suggesting that wild hosts could be essential for the species life cycle.     

Reproductive biology of two species of Hyalella Smith, 1874 (Crustacea: Amphipoda: Hyalellidae) from southern Brazil

Reproduction is a critical event in the life cycle of animals, and a high amount of energy is allocated to it. The aim of this study was to characterize the reproductive biology of two recently described species of Hyalella from the north-east region of state of Rio Grande do Sul in southern Brazil. The specimens were collected during 12 months from a stream source (Hyalella georginae) and from a water reservoir (H. gauchensis), in Palmeira das Missões municipality, state of Rio Grande do Sul. Upon sampling, ovigerous females and pairs in precopulatory behaviour were separated into microtubes. In the laboratory, the cephalothorax length (CL in mm) of all specimens was measured. Male size at onset of sexual maturity was larger than that of the females, in both species. There was a correlation between the size of paired males and females: larger males carried larger females, in both Hyalella species. Precopulatory pairs were found throughout the year; however, H. georginae had a higher frequency in spring, and H. gauchensis in autumn. There was a positive correlation between the CL of ovigerous females and the number of eggs/juveniles. A reduction in the number of eggs throughout the embryonic development was observed in H. georginae. The average fecundity of H. georginae was significantly higher than H. gauchensis. The differences between the reproductive biology of these species may be related to the physical and environmental conditions at which they are exposed in their habitats.     

Reproductive ecology of the glass frog Espadarana prosoblepon (Anura: Centrolenidae) in an urban forest of the Central Andes of Colombia

Population and reproductive behaviour aspects of the glass frog Espadarana prosoblepon are well known for populations from Central America, but similar information is lacking for populations from South America. We recorded the reproductive ecology of a population of the glass frog E. prosoblepon in the city of Armenia, Central Andes of Colombia. With weekly surveys with mark-recapture between December 2013 and November 2015, we monitored activity patterns and evaluated if the probability of males mating is associated to their body size or to chorus tenure (i.e. the number of nights a same individual is calling for attracting a mate). In addition, upon observing an amplexus, we recorded the behaviour of the individuals until oviposition and noted characteristics of egg clutch. We recorded 47 males and 32 females, nine amplexus events, eight ovipositions, and 21 egg clutches (35.4 ± 4.79 eggs per clutch, N = 29). Activity of males and females and the number of egg clutches were positively correlated to rainfall. Mating success of males was not associated to their body size, but it was positively associated to longer chorus tenure; clutches from large females had a higher number of eggs than clutches from small females. Oviposition occurred on average 3.76 ± 1.74 hours after we first observed the amplexus, occurring 93.1% of the time in fronds of Selaginella geniculata at an average height of 1.58 ± 0.44 m. After the oviposition, the male left the site, while the female remained between 30 and 45 min, partially covering the eggs. The reproductive behaviour of E. prosoblepon did not vary widely between a population in Costa Rica and our population in time to oviposition, and mating success of males associated to chorus tenure; however, in our study population we recorded a larger clutch size and the preference for S. geniculata fronds as oviposition substrate.     

Female life‐history characteristics of the Mosor rock lizard,Dinarolacerta mosorensis (Kolombatović, 1886) from Montenegro (Squamata: Lacertidae)

Analysis of the female life history of the poorly studied endemic Balkan lizard species Dinarolacerta mosorensis was conducted on three population samples from Montenegro. One clutch is produced annually. Females mature at body sizes of 56–57 mm snout–vent length (SVL), attained at age 3–4 years. SVL increases with age. The average clutch size ranged from 4.3 to 5.2 eggs, and was significantly positively correlated with maternal SVL in two population samples. There were no trade‐offs between egg size/offspring size and clutch size, nor between variation in egg size/offspring size and maternal SVL. The incubation period averaged 26.5 days, while hatching success in captivity was 72%. Significant positive correlations were found between the hatchling mass and egg mass and size, and also between the hatchling total length and egg width and volume. There was a significant negative relationship between the hatchling mass and incubation duration.     

Resource defence mating system in two flies from Sulawesi: Gymnonerius fuscus Wiedemann and Telostylinus sp. near duplicatus Wiedemann (Diptera: Neriidae)

Gymnonerius fuscus and Telostylinus sp. near duplicatus are two neriid flies which breed in rot-holes (often beetle larval borings) in fallen trees in tropical forests. Males of both species attempt to establish territories beside rot-holes likely to attract females for egg-laying purposes. Monopolization of incoming females and paternity of any eggs laid are therefore assured. Aggression between males of the larger species G. fuscus is largely through ritualized intimidatory signalling, i.e. wing-flicks. Actual physical aggression only occurs when opponents are evenly matched. By contrast, lengthy and hectic wrestling matches on stilted legs is the normal method of establishing site-ownership in the smaller species T. near duplicatus. Males only seek to exclude conspecific males, such that both species may establish simultaneous ownership of a single rot-hole without interacting. Males of G. fuscus who ‘sneak’ matings away from the territories of larger males, or who manage to mate within a territory, gain little or no reproductive benefit. This is because the territory-owner prevents all females, other than his own current mate, from laying eggs within his territory and females seem reluctant to utilize non-territorial rot-holes for oviposition.     

Population dynamics and reproduction of the hermit crab Calcinus gaimardii (Anomura: Diogenidae) at Inhaca Island,southern Mozambique

The population dynamics and reproduction of Calcinus gaimardii were studied at Inhaca Island, southern Mozambique. Crabs were sampled monthly from January to December 2003 in order to assess abundance, size distribution, sex ratio, reproduction and juvenile recruitment. Calcinus gaimardii is sexually dimorphic in relation to size, with males reaching larger size than females. Sex ratios were female‐biased during most months of the study period. Females were more abundant in the intermediate size classes while males outnumbered females in the largest ones. Reproduction took place year‐round with peaks of breeding activity between August and October. Likewise, juvenile recruitment was continuous for both sexes with high intensity in winter (May and June). Egg number increased with female size.     

Natural history of the lizard Enyalius perditus (Squamata: Leiosauridae) from an Atlantic forest remnant in southeastern Brazil

The natural history of the lizard Enyalius perditus was studied from August 2005 to July 2006, at Parque Estadual Nova Baden, in the municipality of Lambari, State of Minas Gerais, south-eastern Brazil. We found that E. perditus may be considered a semi-arboreal species, like other species in the genus, sleeping on vegetation (slim branches or large leaves) at night, possibly to minimize predation. Females with enlarged follicles or oviducal eggs were found from November to January and juveniles recruited at the end of the dry season and beginning of the rainy season, in October. The diet of this lizard is composed mainly of Lepidoptera larvae, Araneae and Formicidae. Females were larger than males, and juvenile coloration is similar to that of adult females.     

Reproductive behaviour of the glass frog Hyalinobatrachium cappellei (Anura: Centrolenidae) in the Southern Amazon

Frog species of the Centrolenidae family exhibit a high variation in reproductive behaviours. Herein we describe the reproductive, ecological, acoustic and behavioural features of Hyalinobatrachium cappellei in Southern Amazon. Two hypotheses were also evaluated: (1) are ecological characteristics of the reproductive site related to male size and quantity of eggs and clutches? And (2) do males with one or more existing clutches at reproductive sites accumulate more new clutches than those males initially without them? This study was conducted at two streams, with sampling at 1 km each in Southern Amazon. Species reproduction occurred during the wet season and was considered prolonged breeding. Although male vocalization occurred on both the upper and underside of leaves, clutches were most often deposited on the underside of leaves. Males emitted a courtship call upon female approach. The process of female approach until oviposition lasted approximately eight hours. After oviposition, females left the breeding site while males remained near the clutch, covering it with the belly in ventral brooding behaviour. Thus, egg attendance is reported for the first time for this species. No intraspecific or interspecific aggressive behaviour was recorded. There was no relationship between habitat characteristics of the reproductive sites and male size, number of eggs and clutches. However, after 10 days of monitoring, we found evidences that parental males had a higher number of clutches than those males initially without clutches. Similar to other glass frog species, the behavioural characteristics of H. cappellei make this species an excellent model to use in evaluating the cost-effectiveness of parental care and the importance of egg attendance for offspring survival. Therefore, these data contribute towards a better understanding of the complex phylogenetic and biogeographic relationships between centrolenid lineages.     

On the natural history of the South American pepper frog,Leptodactylus labyrinthicus (Spix, 1824) (Anura: Leptodactylidae)

Some species of Leptodactylus of the L. pentadactylus group lay their eggs outside water but the tadpoles need to reach water to complete the larval phase; other species complete development in terrestrial nests. Here we present details of the reproduction of L. labyrinthicus in south‐eastern Brazil. The proportion of tadpoles and trophic eggs in aged egg clutches was determined, as well as the growth of the tadpoles while in the nest. The gut contents of tadpoles that were in egg clutches of frogs were analysed. Adult males did not differ from females in size and had hypertrophied forearms and an enlarged spine on the thumb. Reproduction was initiated with the first rains of August/September and extended to mid‐January. Calling and spawning occurred at permanent or temporary water bodies. The foam nests were built in excavated basins outside of, but close to the water. The male determined the place of the basin construction; after amplexus, the female completed the excavation. The amplexus was axillary. One female spent the day after spawning in the foam. The eggs were pale grey, the yolk averaging 2.3?mm in diameter. The mean number of eggs was 2101 per egg clutch. The number of tadpoles in individual nests varied between 0.05% and 11.40% in relation to the total laid eggs. The tadpoles entered water when rains flooded the basin. The tadpoles grew to 12 times the weight of an individual egg while in the nest; no nesting tadpole was beyond stage 25. The longest time we followed tadpoles in a nest was 25 days. Tadpoles were found preying upon eggs of three other frog species and upon conspecific eggs. Males fought by grasping each other in a belly‐to‐belly position; the powerful arms and the thumb spines represent weapons. Even though males can reach maturity in the season following birth, small size would prevent them from establishing their own territory. All the species of the L. pentadactylus group may build their foam nests within excavated basins. The basins may protect the eggs and embryos from cannibalistic tadpoles and may have an anti‐desiccation effect. In order to produce trophic eggs, the female may delay laying additional unfertilized eggs until after the male has abandoned the foam nest. Anuran eggs represent an important food item for tadpoles after they leave the nest.     

Life history of Subulina octona (Brugüière) (Gastropoda: Pulmonata: Subulinidae) based on four-year laboratory observations and a comparative histological analysis of egg-retaining and ovoviviparous subulinids

In the present study, we aimed to characterize the life history of the land snail Subulina octona integrating information on life-history traits and morphology. We also compared the histology of the free-oviduct and spermoviduct of ovoviviparous and egg-retaining species of subulinids. We considered as ovoviviparous the species in which the complete embryonic development as well as egg hatching occurs inside the parent’s body and, at the end of this process, the parent releases juveniles instead of eggs. We considered as egg-retaining the species in which a great part of the embryonic development takes place inside the parent’s body and the eggs laid contain well-developed embryos. The results showed that the free-oviduct of both ovoviviparous and egg-retaining species shows a histological arrangement that confers greater strength to its walls and is probably related to egg retention. The wall of the spermoviduct is formed by pseudostratified columnar epithelium, with cell apical processes (probably cilia), and by underlying secretory cells. In gravid egg-retaining snails, the eggshells appear in close contact with the secretory cells of the spermoviduct. This fact suggests that these cells play a role in eggshell formation. The present study is the first account for histological features of S. octona, Allopeas gracile and Allopeas micra. The life history of S. octona is a combination of long lifespan, early sexual maturity, indeterminate growth and egg retention. Egg retention limits the number of young that can be produced in one reproductive event. However, the reproductive strategy adopted by S. octona, associating egg retention and K-strategism, compensates this cost of retaining eggs, because the reproductive success may be enhanced as a result of the higher survival of juveniles and the possibility of performing several reproductive events during the year.     

Gregarine infection of adult Calopteryx virgo L. (Odonata: Zygoptera)

The zygopteran Calopteryx virgo from a habitat in western Norway was found to be infected by the eugregarine Hoplorhynchus oligacanthus. Females were most heavily infected, in contrast to other gregarine-infected zygopteran species, where no differences between males and females have been recognized. This disparity between males and females of C. virgo is attributed to their dissimilar behaviour and place of activity. The gregarine infection of C. virgo is considered in relation to infected coexisting zygopteran populations.