The genetic code in mitochondria and chloroplasts

The universal genetic code is used without changes in chloroplasts and in mitochondria of green plants. Non-plant mitochondria use codes that include changes from the universal code. Chloroplasts use 31 anticodons in translating the code; a number smaller than that used by bacteria, because chloroplasts have eliminated 10 CNN anticodons that are found in bacteria. Green plant mitochondria (mt) obtain some tRNAs from the cytosol, and genes for some other tRNAs have been acquired from chloroplast DNA. The code in non-plant mt differs from the universal code in the following usages found in various organisms: UGA for Trp, AUA for Met, AGR for Ser and stop, AAA for Asn, CUN for Thr, and possibly UAA for Tyr. CGN codons are not used by Torulopsis yeast mt. Non-plant mt, e.g. in vertebrates, may use a minimum of 22 anticodons for complete translation of mRNA sequences. The following possible causes are regarded as contributing to changes in the non-plant mt: directional mutation pressure, genomic economization, changes in charging specificity of tRNAs, loss of release factor RF2, changes in RF1, changes in anticodons, loss of lysidine-forming enzyme system, and disappearance of codons from coding sequences.     

The arrangement of sarcoplasmic reticulum in smooth muscle

Riassunto Nella muscolatura liscia di vari visceri e vasi viene osservato un notevole sviluppo del reticolo endoplasmatico. Esso è costituito da cisterne direttamente sottostanti la membrana plasmatica e le caveolae intracellulares.

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I thank Prof.J. Z. Young and Prof.E. G. Gray for discussion, and the Wellcome Trust for a fellowship.     

The effect of sulphydryl agents on the ioxynilinhibited cyclic photophosphorylation in chloroplasts ofVicia faba L

Zusammenfassung Es wurde die Rolle von Cystein und Glutathion als Schutzmittel für Enzym-Sulfhydrylgruppen studiert. Zyklische Photophosphorylierung, durch PMS katalysiert und durch Herbizid Ioxynil gehemmt, kann durch Zugabe von 10M Cystein oder Glutathion wieder teilweise bis ständig hergestellt werden. Es wird eine Hypothese aufgestellt, wonach der Hemmungsmechanismus auf einer Radikal-Reaktion beruhe.     

The photosynthetic energy conversion process in isolated chloroplasts

Zusammenfassung Dieser kurze Überblick über das Gebiet der Photosynthese in isolierten Chloroplasten wäre unvollständig, würde nicht die Abhängigkeit des erzielten Fortschrittes von mindestens zwei «verbesserten analytischen Methoden» betont, welcheEmil Fischers ¹ 60 Jahre zurückliegende Prophezeiung erfüllen. Zur Entdeckung der Photophosphorylierung und der Kohlenhydratsynthese durch isolierte Chloroplasten war die Einführung der Isotopen-Technik in die Biologie durchvon Hevesy ¹⁰⁷ und die Entwicklung der Papierchromatographie durchMartin undSynge ¹⁰⁸ von besonderer Bedeutung.Untersuchungen an isolierten Chloroplasten führten zu einer Auffassung der Photosynthese, die sich von der herkömmlichen Ansicht — als eines CO₂-Assimilationsprozesses — unterscheidet: Die Photosynthese scheint im wesentlichen ein Prozess zur Umwandlung der Strahlungsenergie des Sonnenlichtes in chemische Energie zu sein. Diese Umwandlung steht in engerer Beziehung zur Phosphorassimilation und zur Reduktion des Eisenproteids Ferredoxin als zur Kohlensäureassimilation. Die ersten, chemisch definierten Produkte dieser Energieumwandlungsreaktion in der Photosynthese erwiesen sich nicht als Zwischenprodukte der Kohlenstoffassimilation, sondern als ATP und reduziertes Ferredoxin.

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Based, in part, on a paper presented at the Advanced Study Institute on the Biochemistry of the Chloroplasts, Aberystwyth, Wales, U.K., August 26, 1965. — The research work from the author's laboratory reported herein has been aided by grants from the National Institutes of Health, Office of Naval Research and the Charles F. Kettering Foundation.     

The photoelectric theory of photosynthesis IV. the chromophore area of chlorophyll

Résumé La superficie de la coupe transversale de captation des photons, calculée à partir de l'absorptivité molaire par l'équation de Braude, est de 13,8 (Å)² pour la bande d'absorption principale de chlorophylle à 430 mµ. Cette superficie peut se comparer favorablement à la valeur 12,0 (Å)², calculée pour la superficie centrale circulaire Mg-N₄, de la chlorophylle, mais elle est, très nettement plus petite que la superficie du noyau carré de la porphyrine, qui est de 105 (Å)². Ce résultat est interprété comme preuve supplémentaire pour la théorie photoélectrique de photosynthèse, selon laquelle l'auteur a postulé que c'est l'atome Mg de chlorophylle qui est excité électroniquement par absorption de lumière.     

On the balloon-formation of isolated chloroplasts and grana

Zusammenfassung Isolierte Chloroplasten von Spinat und Nitella in Aqua dest. zeigen infolge Membranerweiterung 2 verschiedene Typen ballonförmiger Chloroplasten. Die Erscheinungen bei Grana sind ähnlich. Es wird die osmotische Natur des ballonförmigen Chloroplasten beschrieben.     

Electron microscopic observation of the balloon-formation of isolated spinach chloroplasts

Zusammenfassung Die Ballonbildung isolierter Spinatchloroplasten wurde elektronenoptisch untersucht.

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The authors wish to thank Dr. Y.Kishida for his helpful advice in electron microscopy.     

Effects of abscisic acid on photosynthesis of protoplasts fromPetunia hybrida

Zusammenfassung Inkubation mit Abscisinsäure verursacht bei Mesophyll-Protoplasten vonPetunia hybrida einen Anstieg der Photosyntheserate.     

Lipoxygenase activity of wheat seeding chloroplasts]

Chloroplasts have been isolated from Wheat shoots by density gradient centrifugation. When added to a linoleic acid and Tween 20 suspension these chloroplasts induce an oxygen consumption. The hydroperoxides synthesized from linoleic and oxygen have been characterized by spectrophotometry and thin layer chromatography.     

Effect of increasing concentrations of detergents on electron transfer in chloroplasts]

The effects of increasing concentrations of sodium cholate and deoxycholate, "Tween 80" and "Triton X 100" upon O2 evolution by intact or osmotically broken spinach chloroplasts were investigated polarographically. Except for cholate, low concentrations of any detergent increased considerably (up to four times) the rates of oxygen evolution by broken chloroplasts, without interrupting the electron flux between photosystem II and photosystem I.     

Photosynthesis by isolated chloroplasts of Sorghum vulgare.

The ambiguous location of photosynthetic carboxylases of mesophyll and bundle sheath chloroplasts of sorghum was investigated after successful homogeneous preparation. The phosphoenol pyruvate carboxylase was found as a particulate enzyme in the mesophyll cell chloroplasts and ribulose 1,5-biphosphate carboxylase in the stroma of the bundle sheath cell chloroplasts. Extensive characterization was carried out on these 2 enzymes for better understanding of the enzyme action.     

The glucose dependence of pancreatic endocrine responses to 2-deoxyglucose in the calf

Summary The initial plasma glucose concentration of unanesthetized calves with cut splanchnic nerves, given 2-deoxyglucose (1.2 mmoles/kg, i.v.), was either lowered by prior starvation, or raised by a continuous infusion of exogenous glucose. Raising the initial plasma glucose concentration completely suppressed the release of pancreatic glucagon and pancreatic polypeptide but substantially enhanced the release of insulin in response to 2-deoxyglucose.This work has been supported by the Medical Research Council and the Leverhulme Trust. We are also indebted to Mr P.M.M. Bircham and Mr G.P. Macgregor for their skilled technical assistance.     

Influence of Prometryne and Ioxynil on photosynthesis and nucleic acid metabolism in plants

Zusammenfassung Spinatpflanzen (Spinacia oleracea L.) wurden in einer Nährlösung, welche die Herbizide Ioxynil respektive Prometryn enthielten, kultiviert. Es zeigte sich, dass in den Blättern dieser Pflanzen der³²P-Einbau in die Nukleinsäuren beeinflusst wurde, bevor eine Hemmung der photosynthetischen CO₂-Fixierung eintrat.     

Comparative survey on enzyme localization,ultrastructural arrangement and functional organization in the optic tectum of non-mammalian vertebrates

Summary The histochemical localization of some enzymatic activities is surveyed in the optic tectum of vertebrates from cyclostomes to birds. These data are compared with results arising from ultrastructural and experimental works in order to outline some possible connections between enzyme localization and functional organization of the optic tectum. The most interesting result derives from acetylcholinesterase which, in the majority of vertebrate species, is localized in tectal layers in which visual and other sensitive afferents discharge. Such a situation, together with some experimental and developmental results, suggests that cholinergic mechanisms play an important role in the function of the optic tectum and that these mechanisms are worthy of further and more detailed investigations.Acknowledgments. The author is grateful to Prof.S. Leghissa, Dr. F. Ciani andDr. L. Villani for the permission to use the photographs 8–11 of the present paper.     

The tragedy of the canon; or,path dependence in the history and philosophy of science

We have previously argued that historical cases must be rendered canonical before they can plausibly serve as evidence for philosophical claims, where canonicity is established through a process of negotiation among historians and philosophers of science (Bolinska and Martin, 2020). Here, we extend this proposal by exploring how that negotiation might take place in practice. The working stock of historical examples that philosophers tend to employ has long been established informally, and, as a result, somewhat haphazardly. The composition of the historical canon of philosophy of science is therefore path dependent, and cases often become stock examples for reasons tangential to their appropriateness for the purposes at hand. We show how the lack of rigor around the canonization of case studies has muddied the waters in selected philosophical debates. This, in turn, lays the groundwork for proposing ways in which they can be improved.     

Acetylcholine synthesis and its dependence on nervous activity

Summary The findings discussed in this paper mainly derived from studies on salivary glands, serving as model organs, indicate that the capacity to form the neurotransmitter acetylcholine, as judged by the activity of choline acetyltransferase, is influenced by the traffic of nerve impulses, as a long term effect. In the glands, choline acetyltransferase seems to be exclusively localized to the cholinergic nerves. In the postganglionic parasympathetic nerves of the glands, the activity of choline acetyltransferase decreases when the flow of secretory impulses in these nerves is abolished or reduced either by isolating the nerves from the central nervous system, surgically or pharmacologically, or by diminishing the reflex activation of the glands from the mouth. The opposite occurs when the reflex activation of the salivary glands is enhanced, i.e. the activity of choline acetyltransferase increases. Observations on various other organs are quoted in support of the view that the traffic of nerve impulses is of importance for the activity of the enzyme. An increase, in choline acetyltransferase activity also occurs in some salivary glands after sympathetic denervation. This puzzling observation is discussed in relation to impulse traffic. Increased nerve impulse traffic and collateral sprouting seem to be responsible for the rapid restitution of choline acetyltransferase activity from a low level in an organ partially deprived of its cholinergic nerve supply.