Directional electron transfer in ruthenium-modified horse heart cytochrome c

Cytochrome c can be modified by [(NH3)5RuII/III-] specifically at the imidazole moiety of histidine 33, and we have recently discussed the thermodynamics and kinetics of electron transfer within this modified protein. X-ray crystal structures of the oxidized and reduced forms of tuna cytochrome c indicate that the separation between the haem group of cytochrome c and the ruthenium label is 12-16 A. Internal electron transfer from the [(NH3)5RuII-] centre to the Fe(III) haem centre occurs with a rate constant k congruent to 53 s-1 (25 degrees C) (delta H = 3.5 kcal mol-1, delta S = -39 EU), as measured by pulse radiolysis. The measured unimolecular rate constant, k congruent to 53 s-1, is on the same timescale as a number of conformational changes that occur within the cytochrome c molecule. These results raise the question of whether electron transfer or protein conformational change is the rate limiting step in this process. We describe here an experiment that probes this intramolecular electron transfer step further. It involves reversing the direction of electron transfer by changing the redox potential of the ruthenium label. Electron transfer in the new ruthenium-cytochrome c derivative described here is from haem(II) to the Ru(III) label, whereas in (NH3)5Ru-cytochrome c the electron transfer is from Ru(II) to haem(III). Intramolecular electron transfer from haem(II) to Ru(III) in the new ruthenium-cytochrome c described here proceeds much slower (greater than 10(5) times) than the electron transfer from Ru(II) to haem(III) in the (NH3)5Ru-cytochrome c. We therefore conclude that electron transfer in cytochrome c is directional, with the protein envelope presumably involved in this directionality.     

An atypical haem in the cytochrome b(6)f complex

Photosystems I and II (PSI and II) are reaction centres that capture light energy in order to drive oxygenic photosynthesis; however, they can only do so by interacting with the multisubunit cytochrome b(6)f complex. This complex receives electrons from PSII and passes them to PSI, pumping protons across the membrane and powering the Q-cycle. Unlike the mitochondrial and bacterial homologue cytochrome bc(1), cytochrome b(6)f can switch to a cyclic mode of electron transfer around PSI using an unknown pathway. Here we present the X-ray structure at 3.1 A of cytochrome b(6)f from the alga Chlamydomonas reinhardtii. The structure bears similarities to cytochrome bc(1) but also exhibits some unique features, such as binding chlorophyll, beta-carotene and an unexpected haem sharing a quinone site. This haem is atypical as it is covalently bound by one thioether linkage and has no axial amino acid ligand. This haem may be the missing link in oxygenic photosynthesis.     

Site-directed mutagenesis of cytochrome c shows that an invariant Phe is not essential for function

Phenylalanine 87 of yeast iso-1-cytochrome c (Phe 82 in horse heart and bonito) is phylogenetically conserved and occurs near the surface of the protein. It has been suggested that this residue is directly involved in electron transfer between cytochrome c and cytochrome c peroxidase (CCP) and may also control the polarity of the haem environment. Because Phe residues are not susceptible to chemical modification, no direct means of studying the functional role of Phe 87 has been available, so we have chosen Phe 87 as our initial target here to test the feasibility of using site-directed mutagenesis as a means of studying structure-function relationships in cytochrome c. We have changed the codon for Phe 87 to that of either a Ser, a Tyr or a Gly. The mutated genes have been introduced into a yeast strain lacking both isozymes of cytochrome c. Unlike the recipient strain, transformants grow on a non-fermentable carbon source, indicating that the mutant proteins can reduce cytochrome oxidase. The purified mutant proteins are similar to wild type with respect to their visible spectra, 20-70% as active as wild-type protein in the CCP assay, and their reduction potentials are lowered by as much as 50 mV. Thus Phe 87 is not essential for cytochrome c to transfer electrons but is involved in determining the reduction potential.     

Proton-coupled electron transfer drives the proton pump of cytochrome c oxidase

Electron transfer in cell respiration is coupled to proton translocation across mitochondrial and bacterial membranes, which is a primary event of biological energy transduction. The resulting electrochemical proton gradient is used to power energy-requiring reactions, such as ATP synthesis. Cytochrome c oxidase is a key component of the respiratory chain, which harnesses dioxygen as a sink for electrons and links O2 reduction to proton pumping. Electrons from cytochrome c are transferred sequentially to the O2 reduction site of cytochrome c oxidase via two other metal centres, Cu(A) and haem a, and this is coupled to vectorial proton transfer across the membrane by a hitherto unknown mechanism. On the basis of the kinetics of proton uptake and release on the two aqueous sides of the membrane, it was recently suggested that proton pumping by cytochrome c oxidase is not mechanistically coupled to internal electron transfer. Here we have monitored translocation of electrical charge equivalents as well as electron transfer within cytochrome c oxidase in real time. The results show that electron transfer from haem a to the O2 reduction site initiates the proton pump mechanism by being kinetically linked to an internal vectorial proton transfer. This reaction drives the proton pump and occurs before relaxation steps in which protons are taken up from the aqueous space on one side of the membrane and released on the other.     

Structural insights into electron transfer in caa3-type cytochrome oxidase

Cytochrome c oxidase is a member of the haem copper oxidase superfamily (HCO). HCOs function as the terminal enzymes in the respiratory chain of mitochondria and aerobic prokaryotes, coupling molecular oxygen reduction to transmembrane proton pumping. Integral to the enzyme's function is the transfer of electrons from cytochrome c to the oxidase via a transient association of the two proteins. Electron entry and exit are proposed to occur from the same site on cytochrome c. Here we report the crystal structure of the caa3-type cytochrome oxidase from Thermus thermophilus, which has a covalently tethered cytochrome c domain. Crystals were grown in a bicontinuous mesophase using a synthetic short-chain monoacylglycerol as the hosting lipid. From the electron density map, at 2.36?? resolution, a novel integral membrane subunit and a native glycoglycerophospholipid embedded in the complex were identified. Contrary to previous electron transfer mechanisms observed for soluble cytochrome c, the structure reveals the architecture of the electron transfer complex for the fused cupredoxin/cytochrome c domain, which implicates different sites on cytochrome c for electron entry and exit. Support for an alternative to the classical proton gate characteristic of this HCO class is presented.     

Identification of the electron transfers in cytochrome oxidase that are coupled to proton-pumping

Mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase is a functionally complex, membrane-bound respiratory enzyme which catalyses both the reduction of O2 to water and proton-pumping. During respiration, an exogenous donor, cytochrome c, donates four electrons to O2 bound at the bimetallic haem alpha 3 Fe-Cu centre within the enzyme. These four electron transfers are mediated by the enzyme's haem alpha and CuA redox centres and result in the translocation of four protons across the inner mitochondrial membrane. The molecular mechanism of proton translocation has not yet been delineated, however, and in the absence of direct experimental evidence all four electron transfers have been assumed to couple equally to proton-pumping. Here, I report the effects of proton-motive force and membrane potential on two equilibria involving intermediates of the bimetallic centre at different levels of O2 reduction. The results show that only two of the electron transfers, to the 'peroxy' and 'oxyferryl' intermediates of the bimetallic centre, are linked to proton translocation, a finding which strongly constrains candidate mechanisms for proton-pumping.     

Electrostatic effect on electron transfer between cytochrome b5 and cytochrome c

The binding and electron transfer between wild type, E44A, E56A, E44/56A, E44/48/56A/D60A and F35Y variants of cytochrome b5 and cytochrome c were studied. When mixed with cytochrome c, the cytochrome b, E44/48/56A/D60A did not show the typical UV-vis difference spectrum of absorption, indicating that the alteration of the surface electrostatic potential obviously influenced the spectrum. The electron transfer rates of wild type cytochrome bj, its variants and cytochrome c at different temperature and ionic strength exhibited an order of F35Y > wild type > E56A > E44A > E44/48/56A/D60A. The enthalpy and entropy of the reaction did not change obviously, suggesting that the mutation did not significantly disturb the electron transfer conformation. The investigation of electron transfer rate constants at different ionic strength demonstrated that electrostatic interaction obviously affected the electron transfer process. The significant difference of Cyt b, F35Y and E44/48/56A/D60A from the wild type protein further confirmed the great importance of the electrostatic interaction in the protein electron transfer.     

Electrostatic effect on electron transfer between cytochrome b5 and cytochrome c

The binding and electron transfer between wild type, E44A, E56A, E44/56A, E44/48/56A/D60Aand F35Y variants of cytochrome b5 and cytochrome c were studied. When mixed with cytochrome c, the cytochrome b5E44/48/56A/D60A did not show the typical UV-vis difference spectrum of absorption, indicating that the alteration ofthe surface electrostatic potential obviously influenced the spectrum. The electron transfer rates of wild type cytochromeb5, its variants and cytochrome e at different temperature and ionic strength exhibited an order of F35Y > wild type >E56A > E44A > E44/48/56A/D60A. The enthalpy and entropy of the reaction did not change obviously, suggestingthat the mutation did not significantly disturb the electron transfer conformation. The investigation of electron transfer rateconstants at different ionic strength demonstrated that electrostatic interaction obviously affected the electron transfer pro-cess. The significant difference of Cyt b5 F35Y and E44/48/56A/D60A from the wild type protein further confirmed thegreat importance of the electrostatic interaction in the protein electron transfer.     

稀土（Ⅲ）间溴苯甲酸配合物的合成与性质

为考查稀土配合物的特殊性能，合成了间溴苯甲酸与钪（Ⅲ）、钇（Ⅲ）、镧（Ⅲ）、钆（Ⅲ）的四种配合物．确定其组成为ＬｎＬ_３（Ｌｎ＝Ｓｃ，Ｙ，Ｌａ，Ｇｄ；Ｌ＝３－ＢｒＣ_６Ｈ_４ＣＯＯ）．这些化合物均不溶于一般的有机溶剂，可溶于二甲基亚砜．摩尔电导数据表明它们是非电解质．通过紫外和红外光谱研究，确定稀土离子与羧基为对称的双齿配位．这些配合物的荧光为Ｌ~＊－Ｌ型荧光，不是稀土离子的特征跃迁，而是稀土离子微扰的配体的电子跃迁．差热—热重分析表明配合物热稳定性较好，并给出了熔点．氧化分解失重与计算值相符．     

取代基影响邻菲罗啉衍生物-铕能量传递和荧光性能研究

配体结构调控是提高稀土配合物发光强度的有效手段,根据稀土配合物发光原理,理想配体应具备较高的光捕获能力并且能有效地向稀土离子传递能量。研究表明,增加配体的共轭程度可使配体的光吸收能力增强,而不同电子给予特性基团的引入则会改变配体与稀土离子间的能级匹配程度,从而影响配体向稀土离子的有效能量传递,提高配合物的发光效率。本文以引入不同特性(共轭特性、电子给予特性)取代基的邻菲罗啉为配体合成6种铕的配合物,通过分析配合物的吸收光谱、红外光谱、荧光光谱和X射线光电子能谱等发现,供电子基团和共轭基团能够提高配体的电子云密度,增大配体的摩尔吸收系数,同时有利于配体与稀土离子间形成配位键,能够明显提高配合物分子内能量传递,并使配合物发光性能增强。     

Functional relationship of cytochrome c(6) and plastocyanin in Arabidopsis

Photosynthetic electron carriers are important in converting light energy into chemical energy in green plants. Although protein components in the electron transport chain are largely conserved among plants, algae and prokaryotes, there is thought to be a major difference concerning a soluble protein in the thylakoid lumen. In cyanobacteria and eukaryotic algae, both plastocyanin and cytochrome c(6) mediate electron transfer from cytochrome b(6)f complex to photosystem I. In contrast, only plastocyanin has been found to play the same role in higher plants. It is widely accepted that cytochrome c(6) has been evolutionarily eliminated from higher-plant chloroplasts. Here we report characterization of a cytochrome c(6)-like protein from Arabidopsis (referred to as Atc6). Atc6 is a functional cytochrome c localized in the thylakoid lumen. Electron transport reconstruction assay showed that Atc6 replaced plastocyanin in the photosynthetic electron transport process. Genetic analysis demonstrated that neither plastocyanin nor Atc6 was absolutely essential for Arabidopsis growth and development. However, plants lacking both plastocyanin and Atc6 did not survive.     

Structure of cytochrome c nitrite reductase.

The enzyme cytochrome c nitrite reductase catalyses the six-electron reduction of nitrite to ammonia as one of the key steps in the biological nitrogen cycle, where it participates in the anaerobic energy metabolism of dissimilatory nitrate ammonification. Here we report on the crystal structure of this enzyme from the microorganism Sulfurospirillum deleyianum, which we solved by multiwavelength anomalous dispersion methods. We propose a reaction scheme for the transformation of nitrite based on structural and spectroscopic information. Cytochrome c nitrite reductase is a functional dimer, with 10 close-packed haem groups of type c and an unusual lysine-coordinated high-spin haem at the active site. By comparing the haem arrangement of this nitrite reductase with that of other multihaem cytochromes, we have been able to identify a family of proteins in which the orientation of haem groups is conserved whereas structure and function are not.     

Structure of fumarate reductase from Wolinella succinogenes at 2.2 A resolution

Fumarate reductase couples the reduction of fumarate to succinate to the oxidation of quinol to quinone, in a reaction opposite to that catalysed by the related complex II of the respiratory chain (succinate dehydrogenase). Here we describe the crystal structure at 2.2 A resolution of the three protein subunits containing fumarate reductase from the anaerobic bacterium Wolinella succinogenes. Subunit A contains the site of fumarate reduction and a covalently bound flavin adenine dinucleotide prosthetic group. Subunit B contains three iron-sulphur centres. The menaquinol-oxidizing subunit C consists of five membrane-spanning, primarily helical segments and binds two haem b molecules. On the basis of the structure, we propose a pathway of electron transfer from the dihaem cytochrome b to the site of fumarate reduction and a mechanism of fumarate reduction. The relative orientations of the soluble and membrane-embedded subunits of succinate:quinone oxidoreductases appear to be unique.     

A mechanistic principle for proton pumping by cytochrome c oxidase

In aerobic organisms, cellular respiration involves electron transfer to oxygen through a series of membrane-bound protein complexes. The process maintains a transmembrane electrochemical proton gradient that is used, for example, in the synthesis of ATP. In mitochondria and many bacteria, the last enzyme complex in the electron transfer chain is cytochrome c oxidase (CytcO), which catalyses the four-electron reduction of O2 to H2O using electrons delivered by a water-soluble donor, cytochrome c. The electron transfer through CytcO, accompanied by proton uptake to form H2O drives the physical movement (pumping) of four protons across the membrane per reduced O2. So far, the molecular mechanism of such proton pumping driven by electron transfer has not been determined in any biological system. Here we show that proton pumping in CytcO is mechanistically coupled to proton transfer to O2 at the catalytic site, rather than to internal electron transfer. This scenario suggests a principle by which redox-driven proton pumps might operate and puts considerable constraints on possible molecular mechanisms by which CytcO translocates protons.     

基于氨基作为质子迁移桥梁的蛋氨酸分子旋光异构机理

采用密度泛函理论的B3LYP方法和微扰理论的MP2方法,研究两种最稳定构型的蛋氨酸分子(Met)基于氨基作为质子迁移桥梁的旋光异构反应.结果表明:基于氨基作为质子迁移桥梁的蛋氨酸分子旋光异构反应有2条通道a和b;构型1的主反应通道为通道a,决速步骤为第1基元反应,自由能垒为264.2kJ/mol,由质子从手性C直接向氨基N迁移的过渡态产生;构型2的主反应通道也为通道a,决速步骤为第2基元反应,自由能垒为266.1kJ/mol,由羧基异构后质子从手性C向氨基N迁移的过渡态产生;两种构型的Met分子旋光异构速控步骤的反应速率常数分别为3.04×10~(-34),1.41×10~(-34) s~(-1).     

LaSrCoO_4 的基态研究

通过运用实空间的Recursion方法和Hartree -Fock近似 ,发现层状钙钛矿LaSr CoO4有三个可能的基态。当晶体场强度比较小 ,系统处于反铁磁高自旋态 ;随着晶体场强度10Dq的变大 ,系统处于铁磁高低自旋混合态 ;当晶体场强度继续增大时 ,系统处于无磁的低自旋态。根据LaSrCoO4在低温下的磁矩大约是 2 .6 μB ,推断LaSrCoO4基态应该是铁磁高低混合自旋态 ,这和光电导谱实验的结果是一致的     

Reversible redox energy coupling in electron transfer chains

Reversibility is a common theme in respiratory and photosynthetic systems that couple electron transfer with a transmembrane proton gradient driving ATP production. This includes the intensely studied cytochrome bc1, which catalyses electron transfer between quinone and cytochrome c. To understand how efficient reversible energy coupling works, here we have progressively inactivated individual cofactors comprising cytochrome bc1. We have resolved millisecond reversibility in all electron-tunnelling steps and coupled proton exchanges, including charge-separating hydroquinone-quinone catalysis at the Q(o) site, which shows that redox equilibria are relevant on a catalytic timescale. Such rapid reversibility renders popular models based on a semiquinone in Q(o) site catalysis prone to short-circuit failure. Two mechanisms allow reversible function and safely relegate short-circuits to long-distance electron tunnelling on a timescale of seconds: conformational gating of semiquinone for both forward and reverse electron transfer, or concerted two-electron quinone redox chemistry that avoids the semiquinone intermediate altogether.     

血红素类蛋白质-纳米氧化铝-金胶自组装体系的直接电化学与电催化

三种血红素类蛋白质--细胞色素c、肌红蛋白、血红蛋白,被固定在纳米氧化铝-金胶自组装体系修饰玻碳电极表面,紫外光谱实验结果表明固定在纳米氧化铝-金胶表面的蛋白质保持其原始的二级结构不变.用电化学阻抗光谱和循环伏安技术表征了界面的组装过程及其电化学性质,结果表明纳米氧化铝-金胶模板不仅为蛋白质固定提供了良好的环境,而且加快了蛋白质分子与电极之间的电子转移.讨论了扫描速度对细胞色素c电化学行为的影响及其对过氧化氢的电催化还原等性质.     

Ligand binding and conformational motions in myoglobin

Myoglobin, a small globular haem protein that binds gaseous ligands such as O2, CO and NO reversibly at the haem iron, serves as a model for studying structural and dynamic aspects of protein reactions. Time-resolved spectroscopic measurements after photodissociation of the ligand revealed a complex ligand-binding reaction with multiple kinetic intermediates, resulting from protein relaxation and movements of the ligand within the protein. To observe the structural changes induced by ligand dissociation, we have carried out X-ray crystallographic investigations of carbon monoxy-myoglobin (MbCO mutant L29W) crystals illuminated below and above 180 K, complemented by time-resolved infrared spectroscopy of CO rebinding. Here we show that below 180 K photodissociated ligands migrate to specific sites within an internal cavity--the distal haem pocket--of an essentially immobilized, frozen protein, from where they subsequently rebind by thermally activated barrier crossing. Upon photodissociation above 180 K, ligands escape from the distal pocket, aided by protein fluctuations that transiently open exit channels. We recover most of the ligands in a cavity on the opposite side of the haem group.