Skew of mantle upwelling beneath the East Pacific Rise governs segmentation

Mantle upwelling is essential to the generation of new oceanic crust at mid-ocean ridges, and it is generally assumed that such upwelling is symmetric beneath active ridges. Here, however, we use seismic imaging to show that the isotropic and anisotropic structure of the mantle is rotated beneath the East Pacific Rise. The isotropic structure defines the pattern of magma delivery from the mantle to the crust. We find that the segmentation of the rise crest between transform faults correlates well with the distribution of mantle melt. The azimuth of seismic anisotropy constrains the direction of mantle flow, which is rotated nearly 10 degrees anticlockwise from the plate-spreading direction. The mismatch between the locus of mantle melt delivery and the morphologic ridge axis results in systematic differences between areas of on-axis and off-axis melt supply. We conclude that the skew of asthenospheric upwelling and transport governs segmentation of the East Pacific Rise and variations in the intensity of ridge crest processes.     

Seismic reflection images of the Moho underlying melt sills at the East Pacific Rise

The determination of melt distribution in the crust and the nature of the crust-mantle boundary (the 'Moho') is fundamental to the understanding of crustal accretion processes at oceanic spreading centres. Upper-crustal magma chambers have been imaged beneath fast- and intermediate-spreading centres but it has been difficult to image structures beneath these magma sills. Using three-dimensional seismic reflection images, here we report the presence of Moho reflections beneath a crustal magma chamber at the 9 degrees 03' N overlapping spreading centre, East Pacific Rise. Our observations highlight the formation of the Moho at zero-aged crust. Over a distance of less than 7 km along the ridge crest, a rapid increase in two-way travel time of seismic waves between the magma chamber and Moho reflections is observed, which we suggest is due to a melt anomaly in the lower crust. The amplitude versus offset variation of reflections from the magma chamber shows a coincident region of higher melt fraction overlying this anomalous region, supporting the conclusion of additional melt at depth.     

The influence of ridge migration on the magmatic segmentation of mid-ocean ridges

The Earth's mid-ocean ridges display systematic changes in depth and shape, which subdivide the ridges into discrete spreading segments bounded by transform faults and smaller non-transform offsets of the axis. These morphological changes have been attributed to spatial variations in the supply of magma from the mantle, although the origin of the variations is poorly understood. Here we show that magmatic segmentation of ridges with fast and intermediate spreading rates is directly related to the migration velocity of the spreading axis over the mantle. For over 9,500 km of mid-ocean ridge examined, leading ridge segments in the 'hotspot' reference frame coincide with the shallow magmatically robust segments across 86 per cent of all transform faults and 73 per cent of all second-order discontinuities. We attribute this relationship to asymmetric mantle upwelling and melt production due to ridge migration, with focusing of melt towards ridge segments across discontinuities. The model is consistent with variations in crustal structure across discontinuities of the East Pacific Rise, and may explain variations in depth of melting and the distribution of enriched lavas.     

Larval dispersal potential of the tubeworm Riftia pachyptila at deep-sea hydrothermal vents

Hydrothermal vents are ephemeral because of frequent volcanic and tectonic activities associated with crust formation. Although the larvae of hydrothermal vent fauna can rapidly colonize new vent sites separated by tens to hundreds of kilometres, the mechanisms by which these larvae disperse and recruit are not understood. Here we integrate physiological, developmental and hydrodynamic data to estimate the dispersal potential of larvae of the giant tubeworm Riftia pachyptila. At in situ temperatures and pressures (2 degrees C and 250 atm), we estimate that the metabolic lifespan for a larva of R. pachyptila averages 38 days. In the measured flow regime at a fast-spreading ridge axis (9 degrees 50' N; East Pacific Rise), this lifespan results in potential along-ridge dispersal distances that rarely exceed 100 km. This limited dispersal results not from the physiological performance of the embryos and larvae, but instead from transport limitations imposed by periodic reversals in along-ridge flows and sustained episodes of across-ridge flow. The lifespan presented for these larvae can now be used to predict dispersal under current regimes at other hydrothermal vent sites.     

Magmatic events can produce rapid changes in hydrothermal vent chemistry

The Endeavour segment of the Juan de Fuca ridge is host to one of the most vigorous hydrothermal areas found on the global mid-ocean-ridge system, with five separate vent fields located within 15 km along the top of the ridge segment. Over the past decade, the largest of these vent fields, the 'Main Endeavour Field', has exhibited a constant spatial gradient in temperature and chloride concentration in its vent fluids, apparently driven by differences in the nature and extent of subsurface phase separation. This stable situation was disturbed on 8 June 1999 by an earthquake swarm. Owing to the nature of the seismic signals and the lack of new lava flows observed in the area during subsequent dives of the Alvin and Jason submersibles (August-September 1999), the event was interpreted to be tectonic in nature. Here we show that chemical data from hydrothermal fluid samples collected in September 1999 and June 2000 strongly suggest that the event was instead volcanic in origin. Volatile data from this event and an earlier one at 9 degrees N on the East Pacific Rise show that such magmatic events can have profound and rapid effects on fluid-mineral equilibria, phase separation, 3He/heat ratios and fluxes of volatiles from submarine hydrothermal systems.     

Evidence from three-dimensional seismic reflectivity images for enhanced melt supply beneath mid-ocean-ridge discontinuities

Quantifying the melt distribution and crustal structure across ridge-axis discontinuities is essential for understanding the relationship between magmatic, tectonic and petrologic segmentation of mid-ocean-ridge spreading centres. The geometry and continuity of magma bodies beneath features such as overlapping spreading centres can strongly influence the composition of erupted lavas and may give insight into the underlying pattern of mantle flow. Here we present three-dimensional images of seismic reflectivity beneath a mid-ocean ridge to investigate the nature of melt distribution across a ridge-axis discontinuity. Reflectivity slices through the 9 degrees 03' N overlapping spreading centre on East Pacific Rise suggest that it has a robust magma supply, with melt bodies underlying both limbs and ponding of melt beneath large areas of the overlap basin. The geometry of melt distribution beneath this offset is inconsistent with large-scale, crustal redistribution of melt away from centres of upwelling. The complex distribution of melt seems instead to be caused by a combination of vertical melt transport from the underlying mantle and subsequent focusing of melt beneath a magma freezing boundary in the mid-crust.     

Discovery of a magma chamber and faults beneath a Mid-Atlantic Ridge hydrothermal field

Crust at slow-spreading ridges is formed by a combination of magmatic and tectonic processes, with magmatic accretion possibly involving short-lived crustal magma chambers. The reflections of seismic waves from crustal magma chambers have been observed beneath intermediate and fast-spreading centres, but it has been difficult to image such magma chambers beneath slow-spreading centres, owing to rough seafloor topography and associated seafloor scattering. In the absence of any images of magma chambers or of subsurface near-axis faults, it has been difficult to characterize the interplay of magmatic and tectonic processes in crustal accretion and hydrothermal circulation at slow-spreading ridges. Here we report the presence of a crustal magma chamber beneath the slow-spreading Lucky Strike segment of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. The reflection from the top of the magma chamber, centred beneath the Lucky Strike volcano and hydrothermal field, is approximately 3 km beneath the sea floor, 3-4 km wide and extends up to 7 km along-axis. We suggest that this magma chamber provides the heat for the active hydrothermal vent field above it. We also observe axial valley bounding faults that seem to penetrate down to the magma chamber depth as well as a set of inward-dipping faults cutting through the volcanic edifice, suggesting continuous interactions between tectonic and magmatic processes.     

Mineralogical and geochemical features of sulfide chimneys from the 49°39′E hydrothermal field on the Southwest Indian Ridge and their geological inferences

During January–May in 2007,the Chinese research cruise DY115-19 discovered an active hydrothermal field at 49°39′E/37°47′S on the ultraslow spreading Southwest Indian Ridge (SWIR).This was also the first active hydrothermal field found along an ultraslow-spreading ridge.We analyzed mineralogical,textural and geochemical compositions of the sulfide chimneys obtained from the 49°39′E field.Chimney samples show a concentric mineral zone around the fluid channel.The mineral assemblages of the interiors consist ...     

Lithium isotope evidence for subduction-enriched mantle in the source of mid-ocean-ridge basalts

'Recycled' crustal materials, returned from the Earth's surface to the mantle by subduction, have long been invoked to explain compositional heterogeneity in the upper mantle. Yet increasingly, problems have been noted with this model. The debate can be definitively addressed using stable isotope ratios, which should only significantly vary in primitive, mantle-derived materials as a consequence of recycling. Here we present data showing a notable range in lithium isotope ratios in basalts from the East Pacific Rise, which correlate with traditional indices of mantle heterogeneity (for example, 143Nd/144Nd ratios). Such co-variations of stable and radiogenic isotopes in melts from a normal ridge segment provide critical evidence for the importance of recycled material in generating chemical heterogeneity in the upper mantle. Contrary to many models, however, the elevated lithium isotope ratios of the 'enriched' East Pacific Rise lavas imply that subducted ocean crust is not the agent of enrichment. Instead, we suggest that fluid-modified mantle, which is enriched during residency in a subduction zone, is mixed back into the upper mantle to cause compositional variability.     

Hydrothermal recharge and discharge across 50 km guided by seamounts on a young ridge flank

Hydrothermal circulation within the sea floor, through lithosphere older than one million years (Myr), is responsible for 30% of the energy released from plate cooling, and for 70% of the global heat flow anomaly (the difference between observed thermal output and that predicted by conductive cooling models). Hydrothermal fluids remove significant amounts of heat from the oceanic lithosphere for plates typically up to about 65 Myr old. But in view of the relatively impermeable sediments that cover most ridge flanks, it has been difficult to explain how these fluids transport heat from the crust to the ocean. Here we present results of swath mapping, heat flow, geochemistry and seismic surveys from the young eastern flank of the Juan de Fuca ridge, which show that isolated basement outcrops penetrating through thick sediments guide hydrothermal discharge and recharge between sites separated by more than 50 km. Our analyses reveal distinct thermal patterns at the sea floor adjacent to recharging and discharging outcrops. We find that such a circulation through basement outcrops can be sustained in a setting of pressure differences and crustal properties as reported in independent observations and modelling studies.     

Earthquake-induced changes in a hydrothermal system on the Juan de Fuca mid-ocean ridge

Hydrothermal vents on mid-ocean ridges of the northeast Pacific Ocean are known to respond to seismic disturbances, with observed changes in vent temperature. But these disturbances resulted from submarine volcanic activity; until now, there have been no observations of the response of a vent system to non-magmatic, tectonic events. Here we report measurements of hydrothermal vent temperature from several vents on the Juan de Fuca ridge in June 1999, before, during and after an earthquake swarm of apparent tectonic origin. Vent fluid temperatures began to rise 4-11 days after the first earthquake. Following this initial increase, the vent temperatures oscillated for about a month before settling down to higher values. We also observed a tenfold increase in fluid output from the hydrothermal system over a period of at least 80 days, extending along the entire ridge segment. Such a large, segment-wide thermal response to relatively modest tectonic activity is surprising, and raises questions about the sources of excess heat and fluid, and the possible effect on vent biological communities.     

On the timing and duration of the destruction of the North China Craton

The timing and duration of the destruction of the North China Craton, which is pivotal to understanding the destruction mechanism and its geodynamic controlling factors, still remain controversial. On the basis of the principles of magma genesis and evolution, first we outline magmatic expressions that can be related to cratonic destruction, then use magmatic and basin evolution trends to constrain the timescale of the lithospheric thinning in North China. The main conclusions include： （1） the thinning of the lithosphere beneath the North China Craton might have started, at least locally, since late Carboniferous-late Triassic, attained its climax during the late Jurassic-early Cretaceous, and continued till the end of late Cretaceous-early Cenozoic. The destruction of the North China Craton was a relatively slow, rather than a dramatic process. （2） The weakened lithospheric zones along the margins and interiors of the craton played an important role in cratonic destruction, partly accounting for the heterogeneous pattern of cratonic destruction. （3） The tectonic factors that controlled the destruction of the North China Craton may be multiple. The late Carboniferous southward subduction of the Paleo-Asian plate and the late Triassic collision between North China and South China may have re-activated the craton by influencing the thermal and integral structure of the craton. The Pacific subduction underneath the eastern Asian continent played a determinant role in the cratonic destruction, governing the distribution patterns of post-Mesozoic basins and major tectonic configuration, temporal change of magmatism and formation of the North-South gravity lineament.     

Geophysical evidence from the MELT area for compositional controls on oceanic plates

Magnetotelluric and seismic data, collected during the MELT experiment at the southern East Pacific Rise, constrain the distribution of melt beneath this mid-ocean-ridge spreading centre and also the evolution of the oceanic lithosphere during its early cooling history. Here we focus on structures imaged at distances approximately 100 to 350 km east of the ridge crest, corresponding to seafloor ages of approximately 1.3 to 4.5 million years (Myr), where the seismic and electrical conductivity structure is nearly constant and independent of age. Beginning at a depth of about 60 km, we image a large increase in electrical conductivity and a change from isotropic to transversely anisotropic electrical structure, with higher conductivity in the direction of fast propagation for seismic waves. Conductive cooling models predict structure that increases in depth with age, extending to about 30 km at 4.5 Myr ago. We infer, however, that the structure of young oceanic plates is instead controlled by a decrease in water content above a depth of 60 km induced by the melting process beneath the spreading centre.     

Magma storage beneath Axial volcano on the Juan de Fuca mid-ocean ridge.

Axial volcano, which is located near the intersection of the Juan de Fuca ridge and the Cobb-Eickelberg seamount chain beneath the northeast Pacific Ocean, is a locus of volcanic activity thought to be associated with the Cobb hotspot. The volcano rises 700 metres above the ridge, has substantial rift zones extending about 50 kilometres to the north and south, and has erupted as recently as 1998 (ref. 2). Here we present seismological data that constrain the three-dimensional velocity structure beneath the volcano. We image a large low-velocity zone in the crust, consisting of a shallow magma chamber and a more diffuse reservoir in the lower crust, and estimate the total magma volume in the system to be between 5 and 21 km3. This volume is two orders of magnitude larger than the amount of melt emplaced during the most recent eruption (0.1-0.2 km3). We therefore infer that such volcanic events remove only a small portion of the reservoir that they tap, which must accordingly be long-lived compared to the eruption cycle. On the basis of magma flux estimates, we estimate the crustal residence time of melt in the volcanic system to be a few hundred to a few thousand years.     

The dynamics of melt and shear localization in partially molten aggregates

The volcanoes that lie along the Earth's tectonic boundaries are fed by melt generated in the mantle. How this melt is extracted and focused to the volcanoes, however, remains an unresolved question. Here we present new theoretical results with implications for melt focusing beneath mid-ocean ridges. By modelling laboratory experiments, we test a formulation for magma dynamics and provide an explanation for localized bands of high-porosity and concentrated shear deformation observed in experiments. These bands emerge and persist at 15 degrees-25 degrees to the plane of shear. Past theoretical work on this system predicted the emergence of melt bands but at an angle inconsistent with experiments. Our results suggest that the observed band angle results from a balance of porosity-weakening and strain-rate-weakening deformation mechanisms. Lower band angles are predicted for greater strain-rate weakening. From these lower band angles, we estimate the orientation of melt bands beneath mid-ocean ridges and show that they may enhance magma focusing toward the ridge axis.     

下扬子地区盆地的"四层楼"结构及其动力学机制

下扬子地区震旦纪以来经历了不同的大地构造与地球动力学背景 ,盆地演化相应地经历了震旦纪—中三叠世海盆→晚三叠世—中侏罗世沿江前陆盆地→晚侏罗世—早白垩世火山岩盆地→晚白垩世—早第三纪陆相伸展盆地。下扬子地区震旦纪—中三叠世海盆发育于伸展性被动大陆边缘。沿江前陆盆地形成于扬子与华北板块碰撞活动中的前陆变形带上。火山岩盆地出现于区域性走滑剪切和环太平洋岩浆弧背景下。库拉—太平洋板块高角度、高速正面向东亚大陆下的俯冲 ,造成了岩石圈上拱拉张 ,从而产生了晚白垩世—早第三纪的陆相伸展盆地。随着西太平洋边缘弧后盆地的出现及印度与欧亚板块的碰撞 ,中国东部遭受近东西向挤压 ,从而结束了下扬子地区的盆地演化历史。     

Abiogenic formation of alkanes in the Earth's crust as a minor source for global hydrocarbon reservoirs

Natural hydrocarbons are largely formed by the thermal decomposition of organic matter (thermogenesis) or by microbial processes (bacteriogenesis). But the discovery of methane at an East Pacific Rise hydrothermal vent and in other crustal fluids supports the occurrence of an abiogenic source of hydrocarbons. These abiogenic hydrocarbons are generally formed by the reduction of carbon dioxide, a process which is thought to occur during magma cooling and-more commonly-in hydrothermal systems during water-rock interactions, for example involving Fischer-Tropsch reactions and the serpentinization of ultramafic rocks. Suggestions that abiogenic hydrocarbons make a significant contribution to economic hydrocarbon reservoirs have been difficult to resolve, in part owing to uncertainty in the carbon isotopic signatures for abiogenic versus thermogenic hydrocarbons. Here, using carbon and hydrogen isotope analyses of abiogenic methane and higher hydrocarbons in crystalline rocks of the Canadian shield, we show a clear distinction between abiogenic and thermogenic hydrocarbons. The progressive isotopic trends for the series of C1-C4 alkanes indicate that hydrocarbon formation occurs by way of polymerization of methane precursors. Given that these trends are not observed in the isotopic signatures of economic gas reservoirs, we can now rule out the presence of a globally significant abiogenic source of hydrocarbons.     

Widespread active detachment faulting and core complex formation near 13 degrees N on the Mid-Atlantic Ridge

Oceanic core complexes are massifs in which lower-crustal and upper-mantle rocks are exposed at the sea floor. They form at mid-ocean ridges through slip on detachment faults rooted below the spreading axis. To date, most studies of core complexes have been based on isolated inactive massifs that have spread away from ridge axes. Here we present a survey of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge near 13 degrees N containing a segment in which a number of linked detachment faults extend for 75 km along one flank of the spreading axis. The detachment faults are apparently all currently active and at various stages of development. A field of extinct core complexes extends away from the axis for at least 100 km. Our observations reveal the topographic characteristics of actively forming core complexes and their evolution from initiation within the axial valley floor to maturity and eventual inactivity. Within the surrounding region there is a strong correlation between detachment fault morphology at the ridge axis and high rates of hydroacoustically recorded earthquake seismicity. Preliminary examination of seismicity and seafloor morphology farther north along the Mid-Atlantic Ridge suggests that active detachment faulting is occurring in many segments and that detachment faulting is more important in the generation of ocean crust at this slow-spreading ridge than previously suspected.     

西太平洋洋底高原内部结构与形成演化

洋底高原是在深海盆地中最显著的大火成岩省,记录着海洋大规模的岩浆活动,对研究地壳结构、板块构造、地幔动力学乃至地球演化历史都具有重要意义。西太平洋是洋底高原分布最密集的区域,是研究洋底高原内部结构与形成演化的最佳场所。选取西太平洋中最具代表性的6座洋底高原——沙茨基海隆、赫斯海隆、麦哲伦海隆、翁通爪哇高原、马尼希基高原以及希古朗基高原,通过对这6座洋底高原地质概况的简要描述,归纳近年来获得的地球物理与地球化学重要观测结果,揭示其内部结构的共性,包括大面积地形隆起、异常厚的地壳、异常负的地幔重力异常以及形成于洋中脊之上或者附近的位置特征;探索了其形成机制,即地幔柱与洋中脊的相互作用可能是洋底高原的主要成因。