Scepticism,relativism and the argument from the criterion

This article explores the relationship between epistemic relativism and Pyrrhonian scepticism. It is argued that a fundamental argument for contemporary epistemic relativism derives from the Pyrrhonian problem of the criterion. Pyrrhonian scepticism is compared and contrasted with Cartesian scepticism about the external world and Humean scepticism about induction. Epistemic relativism is characterized as relativism due to the variation of epistemic norms, and is contrasted with other forms of cognitive relativism, such as truth relativism, conceptual relativism and ontological relativism. An argument from the Pyrrhonian problem of the criterion to epistemic relativism is presented, and is contrasted with three other arguments for epistemic relativism. It is argued that the argument from the criterion is the most fundamental argument for epistemic relativism. Finally, it is noted how the argument of the present paper fits with the author’s previous suggestion that a particularist response to the Pyrrhonian sceptic may be combined with a naturalistic view of epistemic warrant to meet the challenge of epistemic relativism.     

Sterols of the brine shrimp,Artemia salina,from Mono Kake,California

Zusammenfassung Artemia salina vom Mono-See, Kalifornien, U.S.A., enhält Cholesterin und Cholestanol als ihr hauptsächlichstes Sterin. Diese Zusammensetzung ist ähnlich wie die jenige von im Laboratorium erzeugten Salz-Krabben und zwar trotzdem das Wasser des Mono-Sees ein pH von 9.6 und einen Salzgehalt von 2.23M hat¹⁶.

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Acknowledgment. This work was supported, in part, by a grant from the Long Beach (California) Heart Association.     

The Protection of the anemone fish,Amphiprion xanthurus,from the sea anemone,Stoichactis kenti

Zusammenfassung Reziproke Kombinationsversuche zeigen, dass «angewöhnte» Anemonenfische nicht von Seeanemonen genesselt werden, die der gleichen Art angehören, mit der sie zusammengelebt haben. Nicht angewöhnte Fische werden durch Seeanemonen gensselt unabhängig, ob letztere angewöhnte Fische beherbergen oder nicht. Wird die Oberfläche angewöhnter Fische abgewischt, verliert sie ihren Schutz 9.     

Desacetylscalaradial,a cytotoxic metabolite from the spongeCacospongia scalaris

Summary From the marine spongeCacospongia scalaris, scalaradial1, desacetylscalaradial2, and heteronemin3 were isolated. Compound2 showed potent cell growth inhibition. The stereochemistry of3 is briefly discussed.Acknowledgments. The authors are grateful to Prof. T. Hase and Mr R. Nakai for collecting the sponge and to Dr s. Tanida for the sponge identification.     

Histones from the red alga,Rhodymenia palmata?

Résumé Protéines ont été extraites de l'algue rougeRhodymenia palmata, par les méthodes normalement utilisées pour les histones. Ces protéines diffèrent des histones du thymus de veau d'une façon marquée, mais elles ont des similarités fonctionelles.     

Jungermanool,a new labdane diol from the liverwort,Jungermannia torticalyx steph

Summary A new diterpenoid named jungermanool was isolated fromJungermannia torticalyx and the structure was found to be labda-8 (17), 14-dien-9, 13-diol by chemical and spectroscopical methods.Chemical constituents fromHepaticae, Part XXIV: Part XXIII,A. Matsuo, H. Nozaki, M. Nakayama, Y. Kushi, S. Hayashi andN. Kamijo, Tetrahedron Lett.1975, 241.The authors wish to express their gratitude to Dr.T. Seki, Department of Botany, Hiroshima University, for the collection and identification of the liverwort.     

Proline synthesis from glutamate in the mitochondria isolated from a blowfly,Aldrichina grahami

Summary Proline biosynthesis from glutamate was demonstrated in a cell free system prepared from blowfly abdomen. The biosynthetic activity was found mainly in the mitochondrial fraction. The biosynthesis of proline from glutamate required ATP, NADPH and Mg⁺⁺ as cofactors.     

Signs, toy models, and the a priori: from Helmholtz to Wittgenstein

The Marburg neo-Kantians argue that Hermann von Helmholtz’s empiricist account of the a priori does not account for certain knowledge, since it is based on a psychological phenomenon, trust in the regularities of nature. They argue that Helmholtz’s account raises the ‘problem of validity’ (Gültigkeitsproblem): how to establish a warranted claim that observed regularities are based on actual relations. I reconstruct Heinrich Hertz’s and Ludwig Wittgenstein’s Bild theoretic answer to the problem of validity: that scientists and philosophers can depict the necessary a priori constraints on states of affairs in a given system, and can establish whether these relations are actual relations in nature. The analysis of necessity within a system is a lasting contribution of the Bild theory. However, Hertz and Wittgenstein argue that the logical and mathematical sentences of a Bild are rules, tools for constructing relations, and the rules themselves are meaningless outside the theory. Carnap revises the argument for validity by attempting to give semantic rules for translation between frameworks. Russell and Quine object that pragmatics better accounts for the role of a priori reasoning in translating between frameworks. The conclusion of the tale, then, is a partial vindication of Helmholtz’s original account.     

Identification of 2-deoxyecdysone from the mite,Tyrophagus putrescentiae

2-Deoxyecdysone was purified from the miteTyrophagus putrescentiae and monitored by a radioimmunoassay. The compound was identified by GC-MS and LC-MS. This is the first report of an endogenous ecdysteroid from a mite.     

Scalarolbutenolide,a new sesterterpenoid from the marine spongeSpongia nitens

Summary A new sesterterpenoid, scalarolbutenolide (5), has been isolated from the marine spongeSpongia nitens; its structure, including the absolute stereochemistry, has been established by chemical and spectroscopic studies.This work is a part of the Progetto Finalizzato per l'Oceanografia e i Fondi Marini, C.N.R., Roma.We are indebted to A. Crispino, C. Di Pinto, G. Scognamiglio and R. Turco for their technical assistance.     

Invaders,weeds and the risk from genetically manipulated organisms

Invaders, weeds and colonizers comprise different but overlapping sets of species. The probability of successful invasion is low. The 10:10 rule state that 10% of introduced speices (those with feral individuals) become established, 10% of established species (those with self-sustaining populations) become pests. The rule gives an adequate fit to British plant data. The rule predicts that invaders will be rarer than natives. This is shown for British Anatidae. There is a continuous spectrum of perceived weediness. Although this spectrum is significantly related to Baker characters, neither those characters or any others can usefully predict which species will be weeds over a wide range of species. Characters tuned to sets of closely related species shown more promise. A study of BritishImpatiens shows that the characters responsible for critical ecological behaviour are still obscure. Small genetic changes can cause large ecological changes. GMOs will have characters entirely new to that species' evolutionary history. While most will have little ecological effect, a few may be ecologically and economically damaging. A sensible programme of field trials and monitoring is justified to minimize the risk.     

Pleraplysillin-2, a further furanosesquiterpenoid from the spongePleraplysilla spinifera

Cellular and Molecular Life Sciences - Si riporta l'isolamento dalla spugnaPleraplysilla spinifera di un ulteriore furanosesquiterpenoide pleraplysillina-2 per il quale si dimostra la struttura 3.     

Lens regeneration from the dorsal iris inEurycea bislineata,the two-lined salamander

Summary Following lens removal from the eye of adultEurycea bislineata, the northern (USA) 2-lined salamander, it was found that this salamander has the capacity for lens regeneration. Its widespread distribution and high percentage of regenerative success suggests it as a suitable organism for the study of this differentiative phenomenon.This research was supported by N.I.H. grant EY-02534 from the National Eye Institute. We thank S.M. DiRienzo for excellent technical assistance.     

Furocaulerpin,a new acetylenic sesquiterpenoid from the green algaCaulerpa prolifera

Summary Furocaulerpin, an acetylenic sesquiterpenoid possessing a furan ring, has been isolated from the marine algaCaulerpa prolifera, and its stereostructure elucidated mainly on the basis of physico-chemical data.This work was carried out in the frame work of the Progetto Finalizzato per l'Oceanografia e i Fondi Marini, CNR, Rome. Thanks are due to the Centro di Metodologie Chimico-Fisiche of the University of Naples (Mr I. Giudicianni) for the determination of PMR-spectra.     

Luffolide,a novel anti-inflammatory terpene from the spongeLuffariella sp.

Summary Luffolide (4) is a minor metabolite of the spongeLuffariella sp. from Palau. The structure of luffolide was determined by single crystal X-ray analysis. Luffolide is relatively unstable and undergoes a complex cyclization reaction to give the hexacyclic products5 and6. Luffolide (4) has some of the anti-inflammatory properties of manoalide (1): this may help to define the chemical reaction between manoalide (1) and phospholipase A₂.All crystallographic calculations were done on a PRIME 9950 computer operated by the Cornell Chemistry Computing Facility. Principal programs employed were: FOBS, a data reduction program by G.D. Van Duyne, Cornell University, 1987; MULTAN 80, and RANTAN 80, systems of computer programs for the automatic solution of crystal structures from X-ray diffraction data (locally modified to perform all Fourier calculations including Patterson syntheses) written by P. Main, S. E. Hull, L. Lessinger, G. Germain, J. P. Declercq and M. M. Woolfson, University of York, England, 1980 BDLS, an, anisotropic block diagonal least squares refinement written by K. Hirotsu, E. Arnold, and G. D. Van Duyne, Cornell University, 1987; PLUTO 78, a locally modified crystallographic illustration program by W. D. S. Motherwell, Cambridge Crystallographic Data Centre, 1978; and BOND, a program to calculate molecular parameters and prepare tables written by K. Hirotsu and G. Van Duyne, Cornell University, 1985.Acknowledgment. We thank the Government of the Republic of Palau for a scientific research permit. We thank Dr Klaus Rützler, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. for identifying the sponge and Mary Kay Harper for performing additional bioassays. This research was supported by grants from the Sea Grant College Programs of California [Projects R/MP-30 to DJF) and R/MP-31 (to RSJ)] and New York (to JC) and the National Institutes of Health (CA 24487 to JC).     

Bromosphaerodiol,a minor bromo compound from the red algaSphaerococcus coronopifolius

Summary A minor bromoditerpene, bromosphaerodiol, has been isolated from the chloroform extract of the red marine algaSphaerococcus coronopifolius and its structure has been established by chemical and spectroscopic methods.This investigation was supported by Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, Roma.