Quaternary folding in the south piedmont of central segment of Tianshan Mountains

The Tianshan Mountains are an important active structural belt in the interior of Eurasia. By integrated methods of surface geology survey and interpretation of seismic profiles, we distinguish fold scarps located at the south limb of the Kuqatawu anticline and the north limb of the Dongqiulitag anticline in the Kuqa rejuvenation foreland thrust belt, south piedmont of central segment of the Tianshan Mountains. Fold scarp is a newly found structural phenomenon. Because of the bend of thrust plane and the movement of hanging wall above the thrust plane, the original horizontal deposits of hanging wall and their surface become a monocline structure, resulting from the separating and migration of the active and fixed axial surfaces. Measuring the geometry of fold scarp and using the data of age of the deformed deposits, the crustal shortening rate resulting from the deeply seated subsurface thrust is calculated. The crustal shortening rate reflected by the fold scarp located at the north limb of the Dngqiulitag anticline is (1±0.1) mm/a. The fold scarps of the Dongqiulitag anticline and the Kuqatawu anticline identify that the deformation process of the crustal compressive structures in the Kuqa area extends into the Late Quaternary.     

Slip zone and energetics of a large earthquake from the Taiwan Chelungpu-fault Drilling Project

Determining the seismic fracture energy during an earthquake and understanding the associated creation and development of a fault zone requires a combination of both seismological and geological field data. The actual thickness of the zone that slips during the rupture of a large earthquake is not known and is a key seismological parameter in understanding energy dissipation, rupture processes and seismic efficiency. The 1999 magnitude-7.7 earthquake in Chi-Chi, Taiwan, produced large slip (8 to 10 metres) at or near the surface, which is accessible to borehole drilling and provides a rare opportunity to sample a fault that had large slip in a recent earthquake. Here we present the retrieved cores from the Taiwan Chelungpu-fault Drilling Project and identify the main slip zone associated with the Chi-Chi earthquake. The surface fracture energy estimated from grain sizes in the gouge zone of the fault sample was directly compared to the seismic fracture energy determined from near-field seismic data. From the comparison, the contribution of gouge surface energy to the earthquake breakdown work is quantified to be 6 per cent.     

汶川地震地表破裂带宽度与断层上盘效应

以汶川地震产生的地表破裂宽度为研究对象, 以地表微变形、裂隙和鼓包、叠瓦状断层及反冲断层等为标志界定破裂的宽度, 查明中央破裂带和前山破裂带宽度的分布。结果表明, 中央断裂带与汉旺?白鹿断裂带的地表破裂宽度不同, 中央断裂带不同段落的地表破裂宽度也不相同。断层还表现出明显的断层上盘效应, 北川?映秀断裂上盘最小避让距离为70 m, 下盘最小避让距离为23.5 m, 断层两侧避让总宽度不应小于108 m; 汉旺?白鹿断裂上盘最小避让距离为35 m, 下盘最小避让距离20 m, 总避让宽度不应小于58 m。地表破裂宽度及断层上盘效应与破裂带陡坎高度、地震烈度分布、强震记录具有较好的一致性。     

Interseismic and coseismic displacements of the Lushan Ms 7.0 earthquake inferred from leveling measurements

By using precise leveling data observed between 1985 and 2010 across the south section of the Longmenshan fault zone, and eliminating the coseismic displacements caused by the Wenchuan Ms 8.0 earthquake, the interseismic vertical deformation field was obtained. The result shows that the Lushan region, located between the Shuangshi-Dachuan fault （front range of the Long- menshan fault） and the Xinkaidian fault （south section of the Dayi fault）, is situated in the intersection zone of positive and negative vertical deformation gradient zones, indicating that this zone was locked within 25 years before the Lushan earthquake. Based on leveling data across the rupture zone surveyed between 2010 and 2013, and by eliminating the vertical deformation within 3 years before the earthquake, the coseismic vertical displacement was derived. The coseismic vertical displacement for the benchmark DD35, which is closest to the epicenter, is up to 198.4 mm （with respect to MY165A）. The coseismic dis- placement field revealed that the northwest region （hanging wall） moved upwards in comparison with the southeastern region （foot wall）, suggesting that the seismogenic fault mainly underwent thrust faulting. By comparing the coseismic and interseismic vertical deformation fields, it was found that the mechanisms of this earthquake are consistent with the elastic rebound theory; the elastic strain energy （displacement deficit） accumulated before the Lu- shan earthquake was released during this quake.     

Near-field surface movement during the Wenchuan M s8.0 earthquake measured by high-rate GPS

Based on high-rate (1 Hz) GPS data from the Sichuan GPS Continuous Observation Network on the footwall of the Longmenshan Fault, we have characterized the near-field surface movement process during the 5.12 Wenchuan Earthquake. Results show that the maximum deformation near the fault is larger than the deformation set. Stations on the northern segment of the fault moved towards the epicenter first, and then turned toward the vertical orientation of the fault. Deformation of stations on the southern segment is smaller and recovered. The initial motion at all of the stations was downward followed by periodic up and down movements. Comparing the displacement from high-rate GPS and accelerograph data, we can see that they are consistent prior to the arrival of the principal shock, but afterwards a 10 cm difference is found, even though they are synchronized and in phase. More work is yet to be done to explain this. This is the first time that actual the real near-field surface movements of an earthquake of M >7.0 have been determined in china. These measurements are therefore of high value for studies of surface rupture processes and the analysis of seismic wave travels paths in this region.     

Fracture surface energy of the Punchbowl fault, San Andreas system

Fracture energy is a form of latent heat required to create an earthquake rupture surface and is related to parameters governing rupture propagation and processes of slip weakening. Fracture energy has been estimated from seismological and experimental rock deformation data, yet its magnitude, mechanisms of rupture surface formation and processes leading to slip weakening are not well defined. Here we quantify structural observations of the Punchbowl fault, a large-displacement exhumed fault in the San Andreas fault system, and show that the energy required to create the fracture surface area in the fault is about 300 times greater than seismological estimates would predict for a single large earthquake. If fracture energy is attributed entirely to the production of fracture surfaces, then all of the fracture surface area in the Punchbowl fault could have been produced by earthquake displacements totalling <1 km. But this would only account for a small fraction of the total energy budget, and therefore additional processes probably contributed to slip weakening during earthquake rupture.     

中条山北麓中段洪积扇上全新世断层陡坎的发现及其新构造意义

通过室内航片解译和野外调查, 发现中条山北麓中段虞乡镇西南山前洪积扇上发育走向NW290°的陡坎。野外差分GPS测量和DEM数据分析得到其最大高度为13 m, 最小高度只有3 m, 高度的差别主要与陡坎所在的地貌面的发育先后有关, 早期冲积扇上发育的陡坎高度较大, 晚期冲积扇上发育的陡坎高度较小。另外, 断层下降盘冲沟扇状堆积也影响同一期洪积扇面上陡坎的高度, 离开冲沟越远, 堆积作用越弱, 陡坎就高一些。探槽研究揭示, 虞乡镇西南洪积扇上断层陡坎晚更新世晚期以来至少发生过两次古地震事件, 断层第一次活动时间在16720±70 aBP以后, 7700±40 aBP之前, 接近16720±70 aBP; 断层第二次活动的时间在7700±40~7020±40 aBP之间, 垂直断距大于2.2 m, 说明该陡坎为全新世断层陡坎。对比研究估计, 该断层垂直活动速率约为0.9 mm/a。     

Plate-boundary deformation associated with the great Sumatra-Andaman earthquake

The Sumatra-Andaman earthquake of 26 December 2004 is the first giant earthquake (moment magnitude M(w) > 9.0) to have occurred since the advent of modern space-based geodesy and broadband seismology. It therefore provides an unprecedented opportunity to investigate the characteristics of one of these enormous and rare events. Here we report estimates of the ground displacement associated with this event, using near-field Global Positioning System (GPS) surveys in northwestern Sumatra combined with in situ and remote observations of the vertical motion of coral reefs. These data show that the earthquake was generated by rupture of the Sunda subduction megathrust over a distance of >1,500 kilometres and a width of <150 kilometres. Megathrust slip exceeded 20 metres offshore northern Sumatra, mostly at depths shallower than 30 kilometres. Comparison of the geodetically and seismically inferred slip distribution indicates that approximately 30 per cent additional fault slip accrued in the 1.5 months following the 500-second-long seismic rupture. Both seismic and aseismic slip before our re-occupation of GPS sites occurred on the shallow portion of the megathrust, where the large Aceh tsunami originated. Slip tapers off abruptly along strike beneath Simeulue Island at the southeastern edge of the rupture, where the earthquake nucleated and where an M(w) = 7.2 earthquake occurred in late 2002. This edge also abuts the northern limit of slip in the 28 March 2005 M(w) = 8.7 Nias-Simeulue earthquake.     

四川汶川大地震与C型俯冲的关系和防震减灾的建议

四川汶川大地震发生在龙门山冲断带,属构造地震.龙门山冲断带与川西前陆盆地是中国西部典型大陆构造,属C型俯冲(陆内俯冲)模式.C型俯冲不仅控制油气资源分布,还孕育着发震机制.作者从龙门山冲断带地史演化、变形特征、深部地球物理信忠,建立起龙门山C型俯冲构造运动模式.汶川大地震发震与此模式的地质构造背景关系密切,是现今发生的陆内俯冲引起的地震.当时可能发生了两次强烈地震,这才可能是北川县城遭到毁灭性破坏的原因.汶川大地震可能发生在上地壳底至中地壳深12～24 km的高导层上,属中国陆内俯冲型地震,很可能是太平洋板块推挤中国大陆的远端效应触发作用所引起,与印度板块推挤作用关系不大.     

Interseismic strain accumulation and the earthquake potential on the southern San Andreas fault system

The San Andreas fault in California is a mature continental transform fault that accommodates a significant fraction of motion between the North American and Pacific plates. The two most recent great earthquakes on this fault ruptured its northern and central sections in 1906 and 1857, respectively. The southern section of the fault, however, has not produced a great earthquake in historic times (for at least 250 years). Assuming the average slip rate of a few centimetres per year, typical of the rest of the San Andreas fault, the minimum amount of slip deficit accrued on the southern section is of the order of 7-10 metres, comparable to the maximum co-seismic offset ever documented on the fault. Here I present high-resolution measurements of interseismic deformation across the southern San Andreas fault system using a well-populated catalogue of space-borne synthetic aperture radar data. The data reveal a nearly equal partitioning of deformation between the southern San Andreas and San Jacinto faults, with a pronounced asymmetry in strain accumulation with respect to the geologically mapped fault traces. The observed strain rates confirm that the southern section of the San Andreas fault may be approaching the end of the interseismic phase of the earthquake cycle.     

The maximum coseismic vertical surface displacement and surface deformation pattern accompanying the Ms 8.0 Wenchuan earthquake

The amount of coseismic deformation and its distribution of the Wenchuan earthquake provide important scientific bases for revealing the mechanisms of earthquake preparation and characterizing the rupture propagation of the Wenchuan earthquake. The previous studies have indicated that the earthquake ruptured the middle-to-north segment of the Longmenshan central fault and the middle segment of the Longmenshan range-front fault, which are characterized by two surface rupture zones of 240 km and 90 km in length, respectively. Based on the pre-earthquake information and photos of landforms and buildings obtained through ge-ologic and geomorphic survey of the area around Shaba Village of Beichuan County, Sichuan Province and the extensive interview with local villagers, we measured the displacements of the major terrain features and the dislocated buildings by total station instruments and differential GPS and obtained the maximum vertical displacement of 9±0.5 m and right-lateral displacement of 2±0.5 m around the Zou’s house in Shaba Village. Though the near-surface deformation exhibits a normal faulting around Shaba Village, the dynamic environment has not changed on the whole. The NW wall of the fault uplifted but without gravity gliding as normally occurring on the hanging wall of a normal fault, which proves that the 9±0.5 m displacement should be the maximum coseismic vertical displacement of the May 12, 2008 Ms 8.0 Wenchuan earthquake.     

Experimental study on patterns of fault interaction

Based on the data of strain field, fault slip and acoustic emission during the deformation of some fault models, the fault interaction patterns are studied. The experiments reveal four patterns of fault interaction, i.e. static promotion or delay of earthquake, creep triggering, dynamic triggering and dynamic loading-relaxation. Promotion and delay of earthquake caused by fault interaction and mechanical property of fault combinations are preliminarily analyzed from the perspective of series and parallel connection of faults, and the relationship between patterns of fault interaction and mechanical and material properties of fault is discussed.     

Preliminary results pertaining to coseismic displacement and preseismic strain accumulation of the Lushan M S7.0 earthquake, as reflected by GPS surveying

This paper presents the coseismic displacement and preseismic deformation fields of the Lushan M _S7.0 earthquake that occurred on April 20, 2013. The results are based on GPS observations along the Longmenshan fault and within its vicinity. The coseismic displacement and preseismic GPS results indicate that in the strain release of this earthquake, the thrust rupture is dominant and the laevorotation movement is secondary. Furthermore, we infer that any possible the rupture does not reach the earth’s surface, and the seismogenic fault is most likely one fault to the east of the Guanxian-Anxian fault. Some detailed results are obtainable. (1) The southern segment of the Longmenshan fault is locked preceding the Lushan earthquake. After the Wenchuan earthquake, the strain accumulation rate in the southeast direction accelerates in the epicenter of the Lushan earthquake, and the angle between the principal compressional strain and the seismogenic fault indicates that a sinistral deformation background in the direction of the seismogenic fault precedes the Lushan earthquake. Therefore, it is evident that the Wenchuan M _S8.0 earthquake accelerated the pregnancy of the Lushan earthquake. (2) The coseismic displacements reflected by GPS data are mainly located in a region that is 230 km (NW direction) × 100 km (SW direction), and coseismic displacements larger than 10 mm lie predominantly in a 100-km region (NW direction). (3) On a large scale, the coseismic displacement shows thrust characteristics, but the associated values are remarkably small in the near field (within 70 km) of the earthquake fault. Meanwhile, the thrust movement in this 70-km region does not correspond with the attenuation characteristics of the strain release, indicating that the rupture of this earthquake does not reach the earth’s surface. (4) The laevorotation movements are remarkable in the 50-km region, which is located in the hanging wall that is close to the earthquake fault, and the corresponding values in this case correlate with the attenuation characteristics of the strain release.     

Coseismic response of groundwater level in the Three Gorges well network and its relationship to aquifer parameters

The 12 May 2008 Ms 8.0 Wenchuan earthquake caused notable changes in the water levels of wells in the Three Gorges area. This work examines the relationship between these coseismic changes in water level and the changes in aquifer parameters. Three wells in the area with good responses to earth tide were chosen for analysis. Water-level data from February to June 2008 were used to calculate the aquifer transmissivity, permeability and specific storage of the rocks, and analyze the relationship between the coseismic responses of the wells and their aquifer parameters. The results show that the Wenchuan earthquake changed these parameters considerably, thereby controlling co- and postseismic variations of water level. The values of these parameters prior to the earthquake are linearly related with the amplitudes of coseismic variations in water level. The larger the aquifer transmissivity, the more remarkable the coseismic change in water level. During the earthquake, changes in aquifer parameters were found to be associated with coseismic variations in water level, with the larger changes occurring when the coseismic variation in water level was larger. The tectonic setting has a certain degree of influence on the co- and postseismic changes in water level. The permeability structures of the fault zone appear to determine the manner of coseismic variation in water level. Moreover, it seems that the water level in wells where groundwater converges more easily can recover faster following an earthquake. Insight from this study helps to improve understanding of the characteristics of water-level changes caused by earthquakes.     

Nonlinear dynamics, granular media and dynamic earthquake triggering

The 1992 magnitude 7.3 Landers earthquake triggered an exceptional number of additional earthquakes within California and as far north as Yellowstone and Montana. Since this observation, other large earthquakes have been shown to induce dynamic triggering at remote distances--for example, after the 1999 magnitude 7.1 Hector Mine and the 2002 magnitude 7.9 Denali earthquakes--and in the near-field as aftershocks. The physical origin of dynamic triggering, however, remains one of the least understood aspects of earthquake nucleation. The dynamic strain amplitudes from a large earthquake are exceedingly small once the waves have propagated more than several fault radii. For example, a strain wave amplitude of 10(-6) and wavelength 1 m corresponds to a displacement amplitude of about 10(-7) m. Here we show that the dynamic, elastic-nonlinear behaviour of fault gouge perturbed by a seismic wave may trigger earthquakes, even with such small strains. We base our hypothesis on recent laboratory dynamic experiments conducted in granular media, a fault gouge surrogate. From these we infer that, if the fault is weak, seismic waves cause the fault core modulus to decrease abruptly and weaken further. If the fault is already near failure, this process could therefore induce fault slip.     

探讨与汶川地震有关的焦点科学问题

基于孕震断层多锁固段脆性破裂理论和新划定的3.6版汶川地震区,再次探讨了与2008年汶川地震有关的若干科学问题,包括该震是否为主震?该震、2013年芦山MS7.0地震、2017年九寨沟M_S7.0地震之间关系?该震是否存在复发周期?该震发生前是否存在显著物理前兆?该震与紫坪铺水库之间关系?研究结果表明:汶川地震并非汶川地震区当前地震周期主震,未来将发生MS8.0~8.3标志性地震;2013年芦山地震和2017年九寨沟地震有直接联系且均与汶川地震密切相关,两者同为下一次标志性地震前的两次显著预震;汶川地震区标志性地震及其未来主震是否存在复发周期目前尚不能作出明确判断;在汶川地震前,由于自1995年12月18日后其震源体的物理状态长期保持近似不变,故不可能观测到显著的中长期与短临物理前兆;紫坪铺水库对汶川地震孕育过程的影响很小,可以忽略。     

汶川地震断层应力强度因子分析超奇异积分法

 地震作为复杂瞬态断裂破坏物理过程,其机制研究是一个多学科交叉问题;同震断层处应力/能量积累释放规律,为从断裂角度研究地震机制提供了一个切入点;应力强度因子（应力角度）和应变能强度因子（能量角度）是断裂力学/物理学的两个最基本的参数。本文应用非线性边界元和主部分析法,将汶川地震断层破坏过程转化为解以断层位移间断为未知函数超奇异积分方程组问题,定义了断层处应力强度因子;利用有限部积分概念及体积力法,为方程组建立了数值解法,编制了Fortran程序,得到断层处应力强度因子数值结果;通过研究应力强度因子随断层位置变化规律,分析了汶川地震断层破坏过程;结合应变能强度因子理论,通过对宏微观电磁破坏过程进一步深入模拟研究可得到电磁辐射破坏变化规律,为地震短临预测提供理论支持和帮助。     

Delayed triggering of the 1999 Hector Mine earthquake by viscoelastic stress transfer

Stress changes in the crust due to an earthquake can hasten the failure of neighbouring faults and induce earthquake sequences in some cases. The 1999 Hector Mine earthquake in southern California (magnitude 7.1) occurred only 20 km from, and 7 years after, the 1992 Landers earthquake (magnitude 7.3). This suggests that the Hector Mine earthquake was triggered in some fashion by the earlier event. But uncertainties in the slip distribution and rock friction properties associated with the Landers earthquake have led to widely varying estimates of both the magnitude and sign of the resulting stress change that would be induced at the location of the Hector Mine hypocentre-with estimates varying from -1.4 bar (ref. 6) to +0.5 bar (ref. 7). More importantly, coseismic stress changes alone cannot satisfactorily explain the delay of 7 years between the two events. Here we present the results of a three-dimensional viscoelastic model that simulates stress transfer from the ductile lower crust and upper mantle to the brittle upper crust in the 7 years following the Landers earthquake. Using viscoelastic parameters that can reproduce the observed horizontal surface deformation following the Landers earthquake, our calculations suggest that lower-crustal or upper-mantle flow can lead to postseismic stress increases of up to 1-2 bar at the location of the Hector Mine hypocentre during this time period, contributing to the eventual occurrence of the 1999 Hector Mine earthquake. These results attest to the importance of considering viscoelastic processes in the assessment of seismic hazard.     

联合slipBERI与D-InSAR技术的青海省玛多县地震形变场提取与模拟

针对2021年5月22日青海玛多县Ms7.4地震震区形变信息、形变特征以及滑动断裂特性的提取与模拟等问题,获取了玛多县地震区的Sentinel-1A影像,采用双轨差分干涉法,并优化各项参数,提取出同震形变场,利用slipBERI(slip from Bayesian Regularized Inversion)方法对断层的几何参数及形变场进行反演和模拟。结果表明：玛多地震同震形变场的形状近似于一个椭圆,断层整体呈西北-东南走向,其上部为沉降区,下部为隆升区,最大LOS(line of sight,视线向)形变分别为0.65m和0.81m。地震形变场的运动主要以东西方向的水平运动为主,并伴有明显的左旋走滑,断层上下方相对视线向运动可达1.50m,表明此次地震的地表破裂有明显的错位移动。通过分析形变信息和地表破裂特征,可以判断该破裂带位于巴颜喀拉块体,为昆仑山口-江口断裂,反演结果与观测结果相符,这表明观测结果较可靠。     

九寨沟Ms 7.0级地震的左旋走滑作用与动力机制

2017年8月8日四川九寨沟发生的Ms 7.0级地震是继2008年汶川Ms 8.0地震、2013年芦山Ms 7.0级地震后在青藏高原东缘发生的又一次强震。本文通过综合分析九寨沟Ms 7.0级地震及历史地震的震源机制解、余震和历史地震分布、区域应力场、活动断层等资料,来揭示九寨沟地震的发震构造与动力机制。初步研究结果表明:(1)此次地震的震中位于塔藏断裂、岷江断裂和虎牙断裂之间的交汇区,显示活动断裂的交汇区对此次地震的发生具有控制作用;(2)发震断裂为虎牙断裂,断裂走向为北西西向,倾向南西,倾角较陡,属于高倾角左旋走滑型地震;(3)震中位于虎牙断裂北段的北部地震空区,充填了1973年和1976年4次大于Mw6.0级地震空区;(4)此次地震位于2008年汶川Ms 8.0级地震的库仑应力增加区,应是汶川地震的应力传递和触发的结果;(5)此次地震位于巴颜喀拉块体的东北部顶角区,青藏高原东缘下地壳流向北东方向的挤出是驱动此次地震的动力机制。