High-resolution X-ray structure of an early intermediate in the bacteriorhodopsin photocycle.

Bacteriorhodopsin is the simplest known photon-driven proton pump and as such provides a model for the study of a basic function in bioenergetics. Its seven transmembrane helices encompass a proton translocation pathway containing the chromophore, a retinal molecule covalently bound to lysine 216 through a protonated Schiff base, and a series of proton donors and acceptors. Photoisomerization of the all-trans retinal to the 13-cis configuration initiates the vectorial translocation of a proton from the Schiff base, the primary proton donor, to the extracellular side, followed by reprotonation of the Schiff base from the cytoplasm. Here we describe the high-resolution X-ray structure of an early intermediate in the photocycle of bacteriorhodopsin, which is formed directly after photoexcitation. A key water molecule is dislocated, allowing the primary proton acceptor, Asp 85, to move. Movement of the main-chain Lys 216 locally disrupts the hydrogen-bonding network of helix G, facilitating structural changes later in the photocycle.     

Molecular mechanism of vectorial proton translocation by bacteriorhodopsin

Bacteriorhodopsin, a membrane protein with a relative molecular mass of 27,000, is a light driven pump which transports protons across the cell membrane of the halophilic organism Halobacterium salinarum. The chromophore retinal is covalently attached to the protein via a protonated Schiff base. Upon illumination, retinal is isomerized. The Schiff base then releases a proton to the extracellular medium, and is subsequently reprotonated from the cytoplasm. An atomic model for bacteriorhodopsin was first determined by Henderson et al, and has been confirmed and extended by work in a number of laboratories in the last few years. Here we present an atomic model for structural changes involved in the vectorial, light-driven transport of protons by bacteriorhodopsin. A 'switch' mechanism ensures the vectorial nature of pumping. First, retinal unbends, triggered by loss of the Schiff base proton, and second, a protein conformational change occurs. This conformational change, which we have determined by electron crystallography at atomic (3.2 A in-plane and 3.6 A vertical) resolution, is largely localized to helices F and G, and provides an 'opening' of the protein to protons on the cytoplasmic side of the membrane.     

Helix deformation is coupled to vectorial proton transport in the photocycle of bacteriorhodopsin

A wide variety of mechanisms are used to generate a proton-motive potential across cell membranes, a function lying at the heart of bioenergetics. Bacteriorhodopsin, the simplest known proton pump, provides a paradigm for understanding this process. Here we report, at 2.1 A resolution, the structural changes in bacteriorhodopsin immediately preceding the primary proton transfer event in its photocycle. The early structural rearrangements propagate from the protein's core towards the extracellular surface, disrupting the network of hydrogen-bonded water molecules that stabilizes helix C in the ground state. Concomitantly, a bend of this helix enables the negatively charged primary proton acceptor, Asp 85, to approach closer to the positively charged primary proton donor, the Schiff base. The primary proton transfer event would then neutralize these two groups, cancelling their electrostatic attraction and facilitating a relaxation of helix C to a less strained geometry. Reprotonation of the Schiff base by Asp 85 would thereby be impeded, ensuring vectorial proton transport. Structural rearrangements also occur near the protein's surface, aiding proton release to the extracellular medium.     

Crystal structure of metarhodopsin II

G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) are seven transmembrane helix (TM) proteins that transduce signals into living cells by binding extracellular ligands and coupling to intracellular heterotrimeric G proteins (Gαβγ). The photoreceptor rhodopsin couples to transducin and bears its ligand 11-cis-retinal covalently bound via a protonated Schiff base to the opsin apoprotein. Absorption of a photon causes retinal cis/trans isomerization and generates the agonist all-trans-retinal in situ. After early photoproducts, the active G-protein-binding intermediate metarhodopsin II (Meta?II) is formed, in which the retinal Schiff base is still intact but deprotonated. Dissociation of the proton from the Schiff base breaks a major constraint in the protein and enables further activating steps, including an outward tilt of TM6 and formation of a large cytoplasmic crevice for uptake of the interacting C terminus of the Gα subunit. Owing to Schiff base hydrolysis, Meta?II is short-lived and notoriously difficult to crystallize. We therefore soaked opsin crystals with all-trans-retinal to form Meta?II, presuming that the crystal's high concentration of opsin in an active conformation (Ops*) may facilitate all-trans-retinal uptake and Schiff base formation. Here we present the 3.0?? and 2.85?? crystal structures, respectively, of Meta?II alone or in complex with an 11-amino-acid C-terminal fragment derived from Gα (GαCT2). GαCT2 binds in a large crevice at the cytoplasmic side, akin to the binding of a similar Gα-derived peptide to Ops* (ref. 7). In the Meta?II structures, the electron density from the retinal ligand seamlessly continues into the Lys?296 side chain, reflecting proper formation of the Schiff base linkage. The retinal is in a relaxed conformation and almost undistorted compared with pure crystalline all-trans-retinal. By comparison with early photoproducts we propose how retinal translocation and rotation induce the gross conformational changes characteristic for Meta?II. The structures can now serve as models for the large GPCR family.     

Aspartate 112 is the selectivity filter of the human voltage-gated proton channel

The ion selectivity of pumps and channels is central to their ability to perform a multitude of functions. Here we investigate the mechanism of the extraordinary selectivity of the human voltage-gated proton channel, H(V)1 (also known as HVCN1). This selectivity is essential to its ability to regulate reactive oxygen species production by leukocytes, histamine secretion by basophils, sperm capacitation, and airway pH. The most selective ion channel known, H(V)1 shows no detectable permeability to other ions. Opposing classes of selectivity mechanisms postulate that (1) a titratable amino acid residue in the permeation pathway imparts proton selectivity, or (2) water molecules 'frozen' in a narrow pore conduct protons while excluding other ions. Here we identify aspartate 112 as a crucial component of the selectivity filter of H(V)1. When a neutral amino acid replaced Asp?112, the mutant channel lost proton specificity and became anion-selective or did not conduct. Only the glutamate mutant remained proton-specific. Mutation of the nearby Asp?185 did not impair proton selectivity, indicating that Asp?112 has a unique role. Although histidine shuttles protons in other proteins, when histidine or lysine replaced Asp?112, the mutant channel was still anion-permeable. Evidently, the proton specificity of H(V)1 requires an acidic group at the selectivity filter.     

Molecular structure of the acyl-enzyme intermediate in beta-lactam hydrolysis at 1.7 A resolution.

The X-ray crystal structure of the molecular complex of penicillin G with a deacylation-defective mutant of the RTEM-1 beta-lactamase from Escherichia coli shows how these antibiotics are recognized and destroyed. Penicillin G is covalently bound to Ser 70 0 gamma as an acyl-enzyme intermediate. The deduced catalytic mechanism uses Ser 70 0 gamma as the attacking nucleophile during acylation. Lys 73 N zeta acts as a general base in abstracting a proton from Ser 70 and transferring it to the thiazolidine ring nitrogen atom via Ser 130 0 gamma. Deacylation is accomplished by nucleophilic attack on the penicilloyl carbonyl carbon by a water molecule assisted by the general base, Glu 166.     

Development of the signal in sensory rhodopsin and its transfer to the cognate transducer

The microbial phototaxis receptor sensory rhodopsin II (NpSRII, also named phoborhodopsin) mediates the photophobic response of the haloarchaeon Natronomonas pharaonis by modulating the swimming behaviour of the bacterium. After excitation by blue-green light NpSRII triggers, by means of a tightly bound transducer protein (NpHtrII), a signal transduction chain homologous with the two-component system of eubacterial chemotaxis. Two molecules of NpSRII and two molecules of NpHtrII form a 2:2 complex in membranes as shown by electron paramagnetic resonance and X-ray structure analysis. Here we present X-ray structures of the photocycle intermediates K and late M (M2) explaining the evolution of the signal in the receptor after retinal isomerization and the transfer of the signal to the transducer in the complex. The formation of late M has been correlated with the formation of the signalling state. The observed structural rearrangements allow us to propose the following mechanism for the light-induced activation of the signalling complex. On excitation by light, retinal isomerization leads in the K state to a rearrangement of a water cluster that partly disconnects two helices of the receptor. In the transition to late M the changes in the hydrogen bond network proceed further. Thus, in late M state an altered tertiary structure establishes the signalling state of the receptor. The transducer responds to the activation of the receptor by a clockwise rotation of about 15 degrees of helix TM2 and a displacement of this helix by 0.9 A at the cytoplasmic surface.     

Functional waters in intraprotein proton transfer monitored by FTIR difference spectroscopy

Much progress has been made in our understanding of water molecule reactions on surfaces, proton solvation in gas-phase water clusters and proton transfer through liquids. Compared with our advanced understanding of these physico-chemical systems, much less is known about individual water molecules and their cooperative behaviour in heterogeneous proteins during enzymatic reactions. Here we use time-resolved Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (trFTIR) and in situ H2(18)O/H2(16)O exchange FTIR to determine how the membrane protein bacteriorhodopsin uses the interplay among strongly hydrogen-bonded water molecules, a water molecule with a dangling hydroxyl group and a protonated water cluster to transfer protons. The precise arrangement of water molecules in the protein matrix results in a controlled Grotthuss proton transfer, in contrast to the random proton migration that occurs in liquid water. Our findings support the emerging paradigm that intraprotein water molecules are as essential for biological functions as amino acids.     

Crystal structure of a membrane-embedded H+-translocating pyrophosphatase

H(+)-translocating pyrophosphatases (H(+)-PPases) are active proton transporters that establish a proton gradient across the endomembrane by means of pyrophosphate (PP(i)) hydrolysis. H(+)-PPases are found primarily as homodimers in the vacuolar membrane of plants and the plasma membrane of several protozoa and prokaryotes. The three-dimensional structure and detailed mechanisms underlying the enzymatic and proton translocation reactions of H(+)-PPases are unclear. Here we report the crystal structure of a Vigna radiata H(+)-PPase (VrH(+)-PPase) in complex with a non-hydrolysable substrate analogue, imidodiphosphate (IDP), at 2.35?? resolution. Each VrH(+)-PPase subunit consists of an integral membrane domain formed by 16 transmembrane helices. IDP is bound in the cytosolic region of each subunit and trapped by numerous charged residues and five Mg(2+) ions. A previously undescribed proton translocation pathway is formed by six core transmembrane helices. Proton pumping can be initialized by PP(i) hydrolysis, and H(+) is then transported into the vacuolar lumen through a pathway consisting of Arg?242, Asp?294, Lys?742 and Glu?301. We propose a working model of the mechanism for the coupling between proton pumping and PP(i) hydrolysis by H(+)-PPases.     

The interaction between purple membrane and membrane lipid

Bacteriorhodopsin in purple membrane was reconstituted into different lipid vesicles. The effect of three different lipids on the structure and function of bacteriorhodopsin in lipid vesicles was studied by the observation on freeze-fracture eletron microscopy, the rotational diffusion of bacteriorhodopsin in lipid vesicles, the measurement of absorption spectrum, and the absorbance change with time. For these prepared samples, the results showed that DMPC was the stable lipid environment of bacteriorhodopsin; egg-pc causeed the loss of retinal chromophore of bacteriorhodopsin and it was not reversible change, cholesterol could stabilize the bacteriorhodopsin in lipid environment,but it caused the aggregation of bacteriorhodopsin.     

Structure and mechanism of the M2 proton channel of influenza A virus

The integral membrane protein M2 of influenza virus forms pH-gated proton channels in the viral lipid envelope. The low pH of an endosome activates the M2 channel before haemagglutinin-mediated fusion. Conductance of protons acidifies the viral interior and thereby facilitates dissociation of the matrix protein from the viral nucleoproteins--a required process for unpacking of the viral genome. In addition to its role in release of viral nucleoproteins, M2 in the trans-Golgi network (TGN) membrane prevents premature conformational rearrangement of newly synthesized haemagglutinin during transport to the cell surface by equilibrating the pH of the TGN with that of the host cell cytoplasm. Inhibiting the proton conductance of M2 using the anti-viral drug amantadine or rimantadine inhibits viral replication. Here we present the structure of the tetrameric M2 channel in complex with rimantadine, determined by NMR. In the closed state, four tightly packed transmembrane helices define a narrow channel, in which a 'tryptophan gate' is locked by intermolecular interactions with aspartic acid. A carboxy-terminal, amphipathic helix oriented nearly perpendicular to the transmembrane helix forms an inward-facing base. Lowering the pH destabilizes the transmembrane helical packing and unlocks the gate, admitting water to conduct protons, whereas the C-terminal base remains intact, preventing dissociation of the tetramer. Rimantadine binds at four equivalent sites near the gate on the lipid-facing side of the channel and stabilizes the closed conformation of the pore. Drug-resistance mutations are predicted to counter the effect of drug binding by either increasing the hydrophilicity of the pore or weakening helix-helix packing, thus facilitating channel opening.     

Asp分子手性对映体转变机理及水的催化作用

用色散校正密度泛函WB97X D方法、 微扰理论的MP2方法和自洽反应场的SMD模型方法, 研究两种天冬氨酸(Asp)分子在优势反应通道的手性对映体转变、 水分子催化及溶剂效应. 结果表明： Asp分子经α 羧羟基、 β 羧羟基、 β 羧基和R 基旋转及质子从α 碳向氨基氮、 质子从氨基氮向α 碳和羧基内质子迁移的一系列过渡态, 实现了手性对映体转变, 并得到几种不同构型的旋光异构产物； 具有2条较强单氢键和2条中等强度单氢键的Asp分子在优势通道旋光异构的内禀能垒分别为258.5,253.8 kJ/mol, 均来自α 氢向氨基氮迁移的过渡态； 2个水分子簇的催化使其能垒分别降至133.3,134.3 kJ/mol, 水溶剂环境下分别降至106.3,107.8 kJ/mol. 表明水分子簇的催化可使Asp分子缓慢实现手性对映体转变, 水溶剂化效应可加快反应速度.     

Crystal structure of squid rhodopsin

Invertebrate phototransduction uses an inositol-1,4,5-trisphosphate signalling cascade in which photoactivated rhodopsin stimulates a G(q)-type G protein, that is, a class of G protein that stimulates membrane-bound phospholipase Cbeta. The same cascade is used by many G-protein-coupled receptors, indicating that invertebrate rhodopsin is a prototypical member. Here we report the crystal structure of squid (Todarodes pacificus) rhodopsin at 2.5 A resolution. Among seven transmembrane alpha-helices, helices V and VI extend into the cytoplasmic medium and, together with two cytoplasmic helices, they form a rigid protrusion from the membrane surface. This peculiar structure, which is not seen in bovine rhodopsin, seems to be crucial for the recognition of G(q)-type G proteins. The retinal Schiff base forms a hydrogen bond to Asn 87 or Tyr 111; it is far from the putative counterion Glu 180. In the crystal, a tight association is formed between the amino-terminal polypeptides of neighbouring monomers; this intermembrane dimerization may be responsible for the organization of hexagonally packed microvillar membranes in the photoreceptor rhabdom.     

Preparation of a gene-engineering mutant of bacteriorhodopsin BR-D96V and corresponding poly(vinyl alcohol)-based functional composite films

Bacteriorhodopsin (BR) exhibits, as a membrane protein in Halobacterium salinarum, unique photoresponsive behaviors, and shows promise as a functional information material. A new mutant of BR with the 96th aspartic acid replaced by valine (BR-D96V) was obtained and then a composite film of BR-D96V in a synthetic polymer matrix was prepared in this research. The mutant BR-D96V was expressed in a bacterio-opsin deficient halobacterial strain (L33) by gene engineering. Although valine is very hydrophobic, this point mutant keeps the basic biological activities, namely, photoelectric and photochromic responses. Nevertheless, the lifetime of M intermediate in the BR mutant is nearly two orders of magnitude longer than that of wild-type BR in neutral aqueous solution, which benefits its potential application as an information material. The M lifetime is further significantly prolonged after embedding BR-D96V into poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA). It was also found that BR-D96V is very sensitive to water content in comparison with wild-type BR and another BR mutant.     

偶氮苯水杨醛Schiff碱及金属配合物的合成与抗菌活性

以水杨醛与苯胺为原料合成偶氮苯水杨醛,并进一步与邻氨基苯酚反应生成了相应的Schiff碱,Schiff碱再与锌(Ⅱ)、锰(Ⅱ)、铁(Ⅱ)三种金属离子络合得到三种金属配合物;采用元素分析、电导率测定、紫外光谱和红外拉曼光谱对Schiff碱及其金属配合物的结构进行表征.结果表明:合成的偶氮苯水杨醛缩邻氨基苯酚配体的结构与理论结构相符,且分别与锌(Ⅱ)、锰(Ⅱ)、铁(Ⅱ)离子配位形成了稳定的金属配合物.对配体及其配合物进行了抗菌活性测试,结果表明配合物的抗菌活性强于Schiff碱配体.     

Imaging bacteriorhodopsinlike molecules of claretmembranes from Tibet halobacteria xz515 by atomic force microscope

HalobacteriaH.sp.xz 515 was isolated from a salt lake in Tibet. Although proton release-and-uptake across claret membrane is in reverse order compared to bacteriorhodopsin in purple membrane fromHalobacterium Salinarum, and its efficiency of proton pump is much lower, AFM image shows that the molecules are still arranged in a two-dimensional hexagonal lattice of trimers. Primary structure of Cto G-helix of the archaerhodopsin shows that it has only 56% homology with bacteriorhodopsin. But the interactive amino acid residues at the interface between B and D-helixes are conserved. These amino acid residues are believed to play a significant role in the stability of protein oligomers.     

Asp分子手性对映体转变机理及水的催化作用

用色散校正密度泛函WB97X D方法、 微扰理论的MP2方法和自洽反应场的SMD模型方法, 研究两种天冬氨酸(Asp)分子在优势反应通道的手性对映体转变、 水分子催化及溶剂效应. 结果表明： Asp分子经α 羧羟基、 β 羧羟基、 β 羧基和R 基旋转及质子从α 碳向氨基氮、 质子从氨基氮向α 碳和羧基内质子迁移的一系列过渡态, 实现了手性对映体转变, 并得到几种不同构型的旋光异构产物； 具有2条较强单氢键和2条中等强度单氢键的Asp分子在优势通道旋光异构的内禀能垒分别为258.5,253.8 kJ/mol, 均来自α 氢向氨基氮迁移的过渡态； 2个水分子簇的催化使其能垒分别降至133.3,134.3 kJ/mol, 水溶剂环境下分别降至106.3,107.8 kJ/mol. 表明水分子簇的催化可使Asp分子缓慢实现手性对映体转变, 水溶剂化效应可加快反应速度.     

胱氨酸水杨醛希夫碱及其配合物的合成和表征

合成了胱氨酸水杨醛希夫碱配体及其与高氯酸钴(Ⅱ)形成的配合物,用红外光谱、紫外光谱对配体及配合物进行了分析和表征,并推测其可能的结构式。     

Crystal structure of the plasma membrane proton pump

A prerequisite for life is the ability to maintain electrochemical imbalances across biomembranes. In all eukaryotes the plasma membrane potential and secondary transport systems are energized by the activity of P-type ATPase membrane proteins: H+-ATPase (the proton pump) in plants and fungi, and Na+,K+-ATPase (the sodium-potassium pump) in animals. The name P-type derives from the fact that these proteins exploit a phosphorylated reaction cycle intermediate of ATP hydrolysis. The plasma membrane proton pumps belong to the type III P-type ATPase subfamily, whereas Na+,K+-ATPase and Ca2+-ATPase are type II. Electron microscopy has revealed the overall shape of proton pumps, however, an atomic structure has been lacking. Here we present the first structure of a P-type proton pump determined by X-ray crystallography. Ten transmembrane helices and three cytoplasmic domains define the functional unit of ATP-coupled proton transport across the plasma membrane, and the structure is locked in a functional state not previously observed in P-type ATPases. The transmembrane domain reveals a large cavity, which is likely to be filled with water, located near the middle of the membrane plane where it is lined by conserved hydrophilic and charged residues. Proton transport against a high membrane potential is readily explained by this structural arrangement.