Fostering Design Culture Through Cultivating the User-Designers' Design Thinking and Systems Thinking

In this paper, the essence of design thinking and systems thinking is reviewed, analyzed, and synthesized. Although there are many valuable schools of systems thinking, I focus on both Banathy's and Senge's since there are design spirit embedded in their systems thinking. I attempt to grasp the spirit of Banathy's systems models and the essence of Senge's systems thinking, incorporating them into my design inquiry. I propose adopting an enlightened, transformative design approach in order to enhance the revolution of the public's inner and outer systems through collaborative design engagement. It is expected that by utilizing the transformative design approach, the public or user–designers could gain the necessary skills to envision their own learning, assume responsibility for designing their own learning environments, and systematically reflect upon their habitual thinking and actions. Ultimately, the user-designers would be able to transform their model-driven or theory-driven approaches to systems application into a cultural approach to the cultivation of systems thinking and design thinking. Indeed, design thinking, as well as contemporary systems thinking are two powerful wings to make us fly in the capacious learning world of the 21st century.     

Toward Fostering Systems Learning in Organizational Contexts

This article explores the ways in which the process of systems learning can be nurtured in organizational contexts. I posit that in order to mobilize systems learning at the individual, group, and organizational levels, an integrated, holistic approach must be pursued. It is suggested that the challenge of not only teaching the systems thinking concepts but also using their actual applications in practice is more than just an issue of pedagogical improvement. The cultural and material issues integral to the use of systems thinking must be taken into consideration as well. I argue that our efforts to improve our pedagogical practices to foster systems learning in organizational contexts can benefit from the social constructivist perspective, which represents a system of ideas about learning. The qualities of systems pedagogy resided in social constructivism are proposed as a framework to think with in designing the meaningful systems learning activities. This article also discusses how to create the cultural and material environments in which the process of systems learning can be nurtured.     

Science as Systemic Intervention: Some Implications of Systems Thinking and Complexity for the Philosophy of Science

This paper sidesteps the usual starting points for debate about complexity and the philosophy of science, which tend to assume that science is primarily about observation. Instead, the starting point is intervention, defined as purposeful action by an agent to create change. While some authors suggest that intervention and observation are opposites, it is argued here that observation (as undertaken in science) should be viewed as just one type of intervention. We should therefore welcome scientific techniques of observation into a pluralistic set of intervention methods, alongside methods for exploring values, reflecting on subjective understandings, planning future activities, etc. However, there is a need to explicitly counter a possible pernicious interpretation of this argument: intervention could (erroneously) be viewed as flawlessly preplanned change based on accurate predictions of the consequences of action. This is the mechanistic worldview that systems thinking and complexity science seek to challenge. Therefore, having redefined scientific observation as intervention, the paper revisits insights from systems thinking and complexity to propose a methodology of systemic intervention. Some brief reflections are then provided on the wider social implications of this methodology.     

The Pragmatics of Educational Systems Design: A Critical Examination

The author critically examines educational systems design (ESD) through the lens of pragmatism. Examining ESD through a lens of pragmatism draws to the foreground issues related to Banathy's (1991, 1996, 2001) idealized systems design for social and societal systems. The author addresses the complex and dynamic nature of systems design, focusing on the systemic processes in which user-designers are continually challenged to inquire, communicate, and consider choices, and make design decisions concerning the nature of the system being designed. The power of social systems design (SSD) lies in the ability to consider the ideal image of a social and/or societal system, critically and pragmatically in relation to creating a new system that will contribute to the evolutionary betterment of society and a sustainable future for humankind. Following an introduction, the author examines pragmatism. Then the author applies a lens of pragmatism, critically, to examine educational systems design in relation to generating change and creating the ideal educational system. The author then argues the pragmatics of educational systems design, concluding the paper with final reflections on ESD as a process.     

Systemic Evaluation Methodology: The Emergence of Social Learning From Environmental ICT Prototypes

This paper investigates why and how systems approaches can help in evaluating the design of new Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) as social learning platforms. It focuses on the prototypes created by the research project Virtualis, whose objective is to promote social learning on environmental concepts and practices amongst a variety of stakeholders. The paper presents the principles of systems thinking and practice that did help in formulating such evaluation processes. It illustrates how both a peer systemic evaluation process (within the research team) and a participatory evaluation process (involving potential future users of the ICTs) were carried out.     

人机融合社会中的系统调控

科学技术的深入发展和广泛应用正在深刻改变人类社会的生产和生活模式,尤其是信息技术的快速发展,推动人工智能(AI)与人的关系由"辅助"到"互助"和"融合"不断深化.相应地,社会调控对象向着能力不断增强的AI系统以及AI赋能的人和组织演变,社会系统将呈现"信息-物理-社会"的高度耦合,调控环境也相应转换为人机融合的复杂社会系统.这一显著变化将倒逼法律体系的变革,对社会系统调控能力提出更高要求,迫切需要人文社科与科学技术相关方法的交叉融合.论文基于对人机融合社会系统发展的研判,在分析法律体系、控制论、人工智能等所面临挑战的基础上,从法律规制和系统控制的角度,提出将调控工程系统的控制科学与调控社会系统的法律充分结合,在系统科学框架内研究处理人工智能时代社会中的系统调控问题;并进一步归纳探讨了以人为本、优势互补、系统分析、量化支撑、算法规制、博弈控制等若干调控原则和可尝试的前瞻领域,以及需要深入研究的问题.这一思路可望量化表达公平正义等法学基本问题,优化调控系统技术指标,促进人机融合社会系统实现其安全稳定、公平正义、民主自由、和谐发展等价值目标.     

Information, evolution, and change

The basic premise of this paper is that the ethicality of systems can be improved by placing them on a more solid informational foundation. Information, evolution, and change are seen to be integrally related. An information typology of nonreferential, referential, and state-referential information is proposed to handle the ontological, epistemological, and teleological aspects of systems. These information types have a particular entailment relationship to each other. The typology and entailment ordering are seen as having important consequences for the design of social systems.     

Enhancing Emancipatory Systems Methodologies for Sustainable Development

Our interest lies in applying the principles of critical systems thinking to human activity systems in developing countries in situations where issues of natural resource sustainability constrain the feasible set of long-term strategies. The concept of sustainable development provides an expanded domain for critical systems thinking. The fundamental values underpinning sustainable development are that both intragenerational and intergenerational equity are important. As a consequence, key stakeholders are often excluded from power-sharing within current social systems. Addressing these issues requires renewed focus on emancipatory commitment and methodologies. To date, Ulrich's critical systems heuristics is the only critical systems methodology that offers practicable tools for emancipation. A case study analysis in Tigray, northern Ethiopia, provides insights in relation to the application of critical system heuristics to issues of sustainable development and highlights the need to extend the use of critical systems heuristics beyond the design and monitoring of structured interventions.     

Tracking the development of the Emery-Trist systems paradigm (ETSP)

This paper is written to accomplish two objectives: first, to introduce the Emery-Trist systems paradigm to the critical systems thinking, a largely neglected and under-utilized paradigm; second using a critical systems thinking framework, to provide a rational justification in an attempt to track the developments in the ETSP so that an extended heuristic map is offered to the scholars interested in the Emery-Trist systems paradigm. Four tracks within ETSP are identified and analyzed to produce a liberation theme that has not previously been articulated. The liberation theme imminent in all four tracks of the paradigm development denotes the value and the promise of the ETSP to the critical systems thinking community as well as to other systems thinkers.An earlier version of this paper was presented at the 34th meeting of the International Society for Systems Science, Portland, Oregon, in July 1990.     

The Future of Systems Thinking

Due to the diminishing popularity of systems thinking, an attempt is done to predict its future in the university world. Two starting points are used: one in the traditional scientific community, being its habitat; and the other in the surrounding society, being its area of application. The investigation shows that systems thinking is highly needed, although its nearest future seems bleak. The systemic challenge to the traditional academic world has unfortunately been taken as a threat against its existence. The scientific and educational impact of systems thinking is therefore opposed as an alternative to the old scientific paradigm. Furthermore, the resistance to new theories moving across disciplinary boundaries seems stronger than resistance to theories within the disciplines.     

Imagine the ideal,make it real: Bringing shared values to life

Idealized systems design (ISD) is defined as a process of disciplined inquiry that enables a system's users to discover the values that most inspire their involvement in the system and then to jump conceptually outside of existing reality to imagine what that system could or should be in light of those values and unconstrained by practical reality. When a fanciful but appealing idea is reached, one which represents an optimum resolution to the needs which have brought or will bring the system into existence, users bring that idea into contact with practical reality and design a system to bring it to life. Costs, benefits, limitations, requirements, and promises of ISD are discussed in light of the author's involvement with 80–85 ISD inquiries.     

Transforming Adult Learning Through Critical Design Inquiry

Marching toward the 21st century, there are not only drastic changes in global economic and political development, but also in technological advancement and ecological evolution. All of these are intertwined with one another to shape national and societal development in various areas. In the milieu of education, these changes exert great influence on the way we perceive learning and instruction, this in turn calls for a paradigm shift in the way we design learning and instruction. Consequently, calls to critically examine the way we have been designing our learning and instruction have gained more and more attention in the past decade. Since design could help in realizing our visionary ideals, and transforming these ideals into innumerable learning and working contexts, we need to probe into how our learning and instruction could be more creatively and powerfully designed. The author contends that most learners, through the process of critical envision and enaction, could learn to design their own learning, either independently or collectively, through the cultivation of design capacities. In this paper, the author first presents the historical analysis of the theoretical foundations of instructional design, and then takes a critical approach to examining the alternative possibilities of instructional design. Based on the critical perspectives of design, she develops the critical design inquiry by integrating the richness of contemporary critical thinking into that of systems thinking and design thinking. To make the critical design inquiry an educational praxis, rather than just another design theory, the author takes a participatory and collaborative approach to design with a group of adult students. The critical design approach aims at enlightening the adult learners’ inner systems revolution and enriching the outer learning environments through collaborative design engagement. In the final section, the author explicates how the confined roles of instructional designers could be conceptualized through the critical design inquiry.     

A Framework of Value-Focused Systems Thinking

Values and value judgments should be tackled explicitly and directly in theory and practice. To do so, systems intervention as a communication process has to be designed in pursuit of the systemic and critical cause. This paper proposes a framework of value-focused systems thinking. The interdependence of values and techniques, and the theory of communicative competence, are briefly discussed as philosophical underpinnings. A methodology is outlined consisting of a reconstruction, judgment, and action cycle revolving around communication design.     

系统方法论研究的现状分析与展望

对目前系统方法论的研究进行分类：硬系统方法论、软系统方法论和批评性系统方法论，分析了不同系统方法的哲学思想、方法步骤及其局限性，探讨了未来系统方法论发展的形式。     

Management Information Systems Education from A Systemic Viewpoint

As a proponent of systems thinking and as an MIS educator, I am interested in assuring that systems thinking is (and remains) incorporated into MIS education, not nominally but truly in spirit. This paper reviews some of the highlights of the history of MIS education, with a view toward the identification and preservation of its systemic spirit.     

On the Usefulness of the Ackoff–Gharajedaghi Model of System Types for the Design of Business Systems

The Ackoff–Gharajedaghi Model of System Types distinguishes 3 fundamental empirical systems: deterministic, animate, and social, with regard to their purpose. It has been formulated as a meta-model to support understanding, selection, and formulation of management models and theories. It is argued here that this model is also valuable for the interpretation and design of actual, empirical business systems. A study of a malfunctioning business is presented and interpreted with the Ackoff–Gharajedaghi Model, which supports this argument. Additionally, the study shows a pragmatic value of the proposed Imperative of Goals Alignment for the design of business systems, which is an operationalization of the Ackoff–Gharajedaghi Model. Furthermore, the investigation illustrates the importance of clear goals and incentives in business design; and it supports the thesis of the Ackoff–Gharajedaghi Model that management models and theories, founded upon empirical observations of deterministic and animate systems, impose limitations on the design of business systems.     

Implications of Knowledge Economy for Citizens: An Empirical Exploration

We describe the application of Priority Pointing, a generically applicable research procedure, to the question how Ireland can become an innovative knowledge economy. Questioning received orthodoxy, we show that Irish culture should put more value on scientific skills, promote a scientifically literate culture, and reform institutional and structural support systems to develop an innovative knowledge-based economy. In autopoietic terms, we illustrate how structure of the social systems and the history of those systems determine the space and capability for future development and innovation. The Systems Science theory used is Nomology, which claims that three different processes of adjusting, convincing, and committing comprehensively describe how the mind structures decisions. Committing and convincing are subjective and correspond to the processes that build the autopoietic aspects of a society or organization. Consequently, the proposed adjustments that emerge from the research should not challenge what we are as citizens, within our autopoietic societal boundary.     

Engineering Systems Thinking: A Multifunctional Definition

This paper asks what engineering systems thinking is and seeks to determine what distinguishes it from systems thinking. The purpose of the study was to identify the characteristics of engineers who are able to think in the manner we call engineering systems thinking. The study seeks to define the term engineering systems thinking on a theoretical level and then to move from the theoretical level to the operational level. A thorough understanding of engineering systems thinking on both the theoretical and operational levels will prove useful in the design of curricula to improve and develop thinking of this sort. Our study was based on 28 interviews, 14 lectures, and 2 observation sites. This paper treats only the material that pertains directly to engineering systems thinking.     

Exploration of opportunity costs and consideration exploration of opportunity costs and consideration for future generations: Two lasting contributions to systems thinking

In his numerous writings C. West Churchman has shown how the systems approach can be used to secure improvements in the human condition. Specifically one must think holistically. Two concepts—exploration of opportunity costs and consideration for future generations—underline whole systems thinking. The author argues based on his own experience that these tools of the human intellect are among the most lasting contributions Churchman has made to systems thinking.