Signaling in the Chemosensory Systems

Of all five senses, olfaction is the most complex molecular mechanism, as it comprises hundreds of receptor proteins enabling it to detect and discriminate thousands of odorants. Until lately, the understanding of this highly sophisticated sensory neuronal pathway has been rather sketchy. The sequencing of the human genome and the consequent advent of new genomic tools have opened new opportunities to better understand this multifaceted biological system. Here, we present the relevant progresses made in the last decade and highlight the possible genetic mechanisms of human olfactory variability.     

Signaling in the Chemosensory Systems

A vast number of structurally diverse bitter compounds need to be detected by a subfamily of only approximately 25 human bitter receptors. Failure in detecting them might be lethal, since some naturally occurring bitter compounds, such as strychnine, are very toxic. This review presents an overview about the enormous progress in the field of mammalian bitter taste research with special emphasis on humans, if data were available. It summarizes the current knowledge about the anatomical basis for bitter taste perception, intracellular signal transduction, evolution, expression and polymorphisms of hTAS2R genes, and the molecular basis for the recognition of bitter compounds.     

Signaling in the Chemosensory Systems

The mammalian olfactory system is not uniformly organized but consists of several subsystems each of which probably serves distinct functions. Not only are the two major nasal chemosensory systems, the vomeronasal organ and the main olfactory epithelium, structurally and functionally separate entities, but the latter is further subcompartimentalized into overlapping expression zones and projection-related subzones. Moreover, the populations of ‘OR37’ neurons not only express a unique type of olfactory receptors but also are segregated in a cluster-like manner and generally project to only one receptor-specific glomerulus. The septal organ is an island of sensory epithelium on the nasal septum positioned at the nasoplatine duct; it is considered as a ‘mini-nose’ with dual function. A specific chemosensory function of the most recently discovered subsystem, the so-called Grueneberg ganglion, is based on the expression of olfactory marker protein and the axonal projections to defined glomeruli within the olfactory bulb. This complexity of distinct olfactory subsystems may be one of the features determining the enormous chemosensory capacity of the sense of smell.     

Signaling in the Chemosensory Systems

The small nematode Caenorhabditis elegans lives in the soil, where mechanical, thermal and most of all chemical stimuli strongly influence its behavior. Here we briefly review how chemical sensitivity is organized at the cellular and molecular level in this organism. C. elegans has less than 40 chemosensory neurons. With few exceptions each neuron senses more than one substance and each substance is sensed by more than one neuron. At the molecular level, as in other organisms, also in C. elegans, seven transmembrane G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs), heterotrimeric G proteins, cyclic nucleotidegated ion channels, TRP channels and Ca++ play crucial roles in chemical sensitivity. An unusual feature, possibly due to C. elegans's strong dependence on chemical cues, is the very large number of GPCR chemoreceptor genes (1300-1700) coded in its genome. Genetic approaches have also allowed the identification of new molecules involved in chemical sensitivity that would not have been discovered otherwise. In addition to the basic factors involved in primary signalling, the studies in C. elegans have revealed a network of regulatory pathways and molecules suggesting that fine modulation of the responsiveness of neurons is important, possibly to allow worms to negotiate a continuously changing environment. The experimental versatility of C. elegans has made it possible, in many cases, to determine precisely in which neuron a given molecule or pathway is required and for which biological response. This type of information can contribute to the general field of sensory signalling because it provides correlations between the biochemical properties of molecules and their cellular functions and between these and the in vivo behavioral responses of the animal.     

Signaling in the Chemosensory Systems

Taste bud cells communicate with sensory afferent fibers and may also exchange information with adjacent cells. Indeed, communication between taste cells via conventional and/or novel synaptic interactions may occur prior to signal output to primary afferent fibers. This review discusses synaptic processing in taste buds and summarizes results showing that it is now possible to measure real-time release of synaptic transmitters during taste stimulation using cellular biosensors. There is strong evidence that serotonin and ATP play a role in cell-to-cell signaling and sensory output in the gustatory end organs.     

Emerging Role of MicroRNAs in mTOR Signaling

Mechanistic target of rapamycin (mTOR) is a conserved serine/threonine kinase that plays a critical role in the control of cellular growth and metabolism. Hyperactivation of mTOR pathway is common in human cancers, driving uncontrolled proliferation. MicroRNA (miRNA) is a class of short noncoding RNAs that regulate the expression of a wide variety of genes. Deregulation of miRNAs is a hallmark of cancer. Recent studies have revealed interplays between miRNAs and the mTOR pathway during cancer development. Such interactions appear to provide a fine-tuning of various cellular functions and contribute qualitatively to the behavior of cancer. Here we provide an overview of current knowledge regarding the reciprocal relationship between miRNAs and mTOR pathway: regulation of mTOR signaling by miRNAs and control of miRNA biogenesis by mTOR. Further research in this area may prove important for the diagnosis and therapy of human cancer.     

Signaling pathways between the plasma membrane and endoplasmic reticulum calcium stores

This review discusses multiple ways in which the endoplasmic reticulum participates in and is influenced by signal transduction pathways. The endoplasmic reticulum provides a Ca2+ store that can be mobilized either by calcium-induced calcium release or by the diffusible messenger inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate. Depletion of endoplasmic reticulum Ca2+ stores provides a signal that activates surface membrane Ca2+ channels, a process known as capacitative calcium entry. Depletion of endoplasmic reticulum stores can also signal long-term cellular responses such as gene expression and programmed cell death or apoptosis. In addition to serving as a source of cellular signals, the endoplasmic reticulum is also functionally and structurally modified by the Ca2+ and protein kinase C pathways. Elevated cytoplasmic Ca2+ causes a rearrangement and fragmentation of endoplasmic reticulum membranes. Protein kinase C activation reduces the storage capacity of the endoplasmic reticulum Ca2+ pool. In some cell types, protein kinase C inhibits capacitative calcium entry. Protein kinase C activation also protects the endoplasmic reticulum from the structural effects of high cytoplasmic Ca2+. The emerging view is one of a complex network of pathways through which the endoplasmic reticulum and the Ca2+ and protein kinase C signaling pathways interact at various levels regulating cellular structure and function.     

风力发电冷却技术

随着风力发电机单机容量的逐步增大,发电机内各部件的散热量也将大大增加,如何有效解决发电机的温升瓶颈,已成为风力发电机进一步发展的关键问题之一。本文首先对风力发电的原理与结构进行了综述,分析了风力发电机运行过程中热量产生的部件和原因,介绍了目前风力发电机组所采用的冷却技术,并在此基础上对下一代大功率风力发电机冷却技术进行了展望。     

系统药物学

系统药物学,是在系统水平认识药物,研究药物作用的系统性、多组分药物系统、和药物信息分子。系统药物学包括计算系统药物学、实验系统药物学及系统药物治疗学,需要引入新的思路、技术、算法与软件、设备等。中药现代化的方向是系统药物学,中药西化只是其组成部分之一。同时,要西药中化,西药中化与中药西化将成为构建系统药物学理论体系的重要组成部分。本文还讨论了系统药物学研究对药物发现和个性化治疗的意义。     

Signaling pathways and the cerebral cavernous malformations proteins: lessons from structural biology

Cerebral cavernous malformations (CCM) are neurovascular dysplasias that result in mulberry-shaped lesions predominantly located in brain and spinal tissues. Mutations in three genes are associated with CCM. These genes encode for the proteins KRIT1/CCM1 (krev interaction trapped 1/cerebral cavernous malformations 1), cerebral cavernous malformations 2, osmosensing scaffold for MEKK3 (CCM2/malcavernin/OSM), and cerebral cavernous malformations 3/programmed cell death 10 (CCM3/PDCD10). There have been many significant recent advances in our understanding of the structure and function of these proteins, as well as in their roles in cellular signaling. Here, we provide an update on the current knowledge of the structure of the CCM proteins and their functions within cellular signaling, particularly in cellular adhesion complexes and signaling cascades. We go on to discuss subcellular localization of the CCM proteins, the formation and regulation of the CCM complex signaling platform, and current progress towards targeted therapy for CCM disease. Recent structural studies have begun to shed new light on CCM protein function, and we focus here on how these studies have helped inform the current understanding of these roles and how they may aid future studies into both CCM-related biology and disease mechanisms.     

Observability of States in Non-Linear Systems

In this paper we define two new properties—linear observability and L-observability—to aid the study of overspecification and unidentifiability in quasi-linear and non-linear state space time series. Various equivalence results are proved and illustrated and some general properties of observable and unobservable processes are derived. The results are often proved by using graphical methods (influence diagrams) for manipulating conditional independence statements embedded in the new definitions. © 1997 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Signaling mechanisms of neurite outgrowth induced by the cell adhesion molecules NCAM and N-Cadherin

Formation of appropriate neural circuits depends on a complex interplay between extracellular guiding cues and intracellular signaling events that result in alterations of cytoskeletal dynamics and a neurite growth response. Surface-expressed cell adhesion molecules (CAMs) interact with the surroundings via the extracellular domain and bind to the cytoskeleton via their intracellular domain. In addition, several CAMs induce signaling events via direct interactions with intracellular proteins or via interactions with cell surface receptors. Thus, CAMs are obvious candidates for transmitting extracellular guidance cues to intracellular events and thereby regulating neurite outgrowth. In this review, we focus on two CAMs, the neural cell adhesion molecule (NCAM) and N-cadherin, and their ability to mediate signaling associated with a neurite outgrowth response. In particular, we will focus on direct interaction between NCAM and N-cadherin with a number of intracellular partners, as well as on their interaction with the fibroblast growth factor receptor (FGFR). Received 23 May 2008; received after revision 14 July 2008; accepted 21 July 2008     

成年大鼠脊髓损伤后Sonic Hedgehog信号通路成分的动态表达

目的观察Sonic Hedgehog(Shh)信号通路中Shh、Gli-1在成年大鼠脊髓损伤后的动态表达,探讨Shh信号通路对大鼠脊髓损伤后的调控作用。方法将64只健康SD大鼠随机分为正常组(n=8),假手术组(n=8),脊髓损伤12h、1d、3d、7d、14d和21d组(n=8),共8组。构建大鼠脊髓损伤模型,观察损伤后大鼠行为学的改变,并应用实时荧光定量PCR技术(Real-Time Quantitative PCR)和蛋白免疫印迹法(Western Blotting)检测Shh、Gli-1 mRNA和相关蛋白表达水平的变化。结果行为学观察表明,大鼠脊髓损伤后运动功能下降,RT-PCR和免疫印迹法表明,Shh、Gli-1在正常组织少量表达,脊髓损伤后Shh、Gli-1表达均明显增高,损伤后第7天达到峰值,损伤21天后仍有高水平的表达。结论脊髓损伤可以上调Shh信号通路成分的表达并表现出一定的动态变化规律,提示Shh信号通路可能参与了脊髓损伤后神经细胞的调控作用。     

拓展非平衡系统自组织理论的研究进展

本文就物理世界中的两类组织结构描述了非平衡系统中自组织现象研究在热力学与动力学方面的研究概貌,阐述了从自组织理论到复杂系统理论、从宏观系统到量子系统、从物理系统到非物理系统的自组织理论研究进展。并针对拓展非平衡系统自组织理论两个极富挑战性的研究领域－－－化学反应－扩散－传热系统及种群生长的生态系统,在建立完整的纯粹耗散系统自组织理论与种群生长含时自组织理论的探索中提出了系列具有重要研究价值与学术意义的问题与方向。