Points of View: A Conceptual Space Approach

Points of view are a central phenomenon in human cognition. Although the concept of point of view is ambiguous, there exist common elements in different notions. A point of view is a certain way to look at things around us. In conceptual points of view, things are looked at or interpreted through conceptual lenses. Conceptual points of view are important for epistemology, cognitive science, and philosophy of science. In this article, a new method to formalize conceptual points of view is introduced. It is based on the conceptual space approach, where concepts are regions of multi-dimensional quality spaces. Points of view, as defined in this article, consist of a selection of relevant dimensions, referred to here as determinables, and of a certain supposition, referred to here as a theory, about the subject content. After considering some early efforts to formalize points of view, the notion of conceptual space is defined and explored. One concept of point of view is defined and developed in the framework of conceptual space, and a new logic for points of view is also outlined. The problem of mind–body correlation is discussed as an example of the application of the notion of points of view. To conclude, the meaning and applications of the new concepts and tools developed in the article are discussed.     

Unification of Mathematical Theories

In this article the problem of unification of mathematical theories is discussed. We argue, that specific problems arise here, which are quite different than the problems in the case of empirical sciences. In particular, the notion of unification depends on the philosophical standpoint. We give an analysis of the notion of unification from the point of view of formalism, Gödel's platonism and Quine's realism. In particular we show, that the concept of “having the same object of study” should be made precise in the case of mathematical theories. In the appendix we give a working proposal of a certain understanding of this notion.     

字母词的汉语化问题

如何汉语化字母词，特别是人们早已习惯的字母词，在今天显得尤为迫切。本文从语言学角度出发，在指出用中文全称完全取代字母词的做法存在一些困难的同时，认为一般情况下用简缩文字的方法翻译字母词不仅可行，而且很有必要。在翻译界及术语界已有成果的基础上，本文总结了用简称将字母词汉语化时可资借鉴的方法与遵循的原则，强调了字母词汉语化的功能意义，以期对有关部门出台与禁用字母词措施相配套的方案带来有益启示，对字母词的汉语化工作有所帮助。     

字母词的汉语化问题

如何汉语化字母词,特别是人们早已习惯的字母词,在今天显得尤为迫切。本文从语言学角度出发,在指出用中文全称完全取代字母词的做法存在一些困难的同时,认为一般情况下用简缩文字的方法翻译字母词不仅可行,而且很有必要。在翻译界及术语界已有成果的基础上,本文总结了用简称将字母词汉语化时可资借鉴的方法与遵循的原则,强调了字母词汉语化的功能意义,以期对有关部门出台与禁用字母词措施相配套的方案带来有益启示,对字母词的汉语化工作有所帮助。     

Development (and Evolution) of the Universe

I distinguish Nature from the World. I also distinguish development from evolution. Development is progressive change and can be modeled as part of Nature, using a specification hierarchy. I have proposed a ‘canonical developmental trajectory’ of dissipative structures with the stages defined thermodynamically and informationally. I consider some thermodynamic aspects of the Big Bang, leading to a proposal for reviving final cause. This model imposes a ‘hylozooic’ kind of interpretation upon Nature, as all emergent features at higher levels would have been vaguely and episodically present primitively in the lower integrative levels, and were stabilized materially with the developmental emergence of new levels. The specification hierarchy’s form is that of a tree, with its trunk in its lowest level, and so this hierarchy is appropriate for modeling an expanding system like the Universe. It is consistent with this model of differentiation during Big Bang development to view emerging branch tips as having been entrained by multiple finalities because of the top-down integration of the various levels of organization by the higher levels.     

Complexity and Evolution: A Study of the Growth of Complexity in Organic and Cultural Evolution

In the present paper I develop a model of the evolutionary process associated to the widespread although controversial notion of a prevailing trend of increasing complexity over time. The model builds on a coupling of evolution to individual developmental programs and introduces an integrated view of evolution implying that human culture and science form a continuous extension of organic evolution. It is formed as a mathematical model that has made possible a quantitative estimation in relative terms of the growth of complexity. This estimation is accomplished by means of computer simulations the result of which indicates a strong acceleration of complexity all the way from the appearance of multicellular organisms up to modern man.     

儒道情怀的现代价值

在中国古代历史的发展中，儒家的“士不可以不弘毅”的人生态度与道家无为而治的“法自然”态度，曾以符合不同阶层、不同境遇的人们的实际需要，并行、交融、发展，促进了儒家情怀和道家情怀的形成。这两种情怀在思维方法论上，都以经世致用的功用性出发，一直影响着中国古代士人的思维方式，为他们不同的“应然”生存状态提供了一种理念支撑。体现在个人的认知、行为上，就是一种整体性思维的结果，成就了不同的价值取向和人性关怀。这对于具体调整当今社会人们的不同心态，仍然有着鲜活的现代意义。     

Points of View Beyond Models: Towards a Formal Approach to Points of View as Access to the World

According to Vázquez and Liz (Found Sci 16(4): 383–391, 2011), Points of View (PoV) can be considered in two different ways. On the one hand, they can be explained following the model of propositional attitudes. This model assumes that the internal structure of a PoV is constituted by a subject, a set of contents, and a set of relations between the subject and those contents. On the other hand, we can analyze points of view taking as a model the notions of location and access. If we choose to follow the second approach, instead of the first one, the internal structure of a PoV is not directly addressed, and the emphasized features of PoV are related to the function that PoV are intended to have. That is, PoV are directly identified by their role and they can solely be understood as ways of accessing the world that bring some kind of perspective about it. Having this in mind, we would like to propose a notation that explains how to understand such access as a sort of models (that can allow the creation of concepts), independently of whether the precise PoV under consideration is impersonal or non-impersonal, its kind of content, and its subjective or objective character. First, we will present an account of some previous approaches to the study of points of view. Then, we will analyze what kind of structure the world is assumed to posses and how the access to it is possible. Third, we will develop a notation that explains PoV as qualitative dimensions by means of which it is possible to valuate objects and states of the world.     

计算机模拟的认知功能及其可能性

尽管计算机模拟实现了人类认知功能的物化，也为揭示人类认知活动机理开辟了新的途径，但学术界对认知功能的计算机模拟仍存在不同评价。为此，本文从理论层面对认知模拟作了辩证分析，在肯定其具有三项意义的同时，也指出其无法克服的诸多局限。笔者认为，客观评价认知功能的计算机模拟，有助于认知科学家在理论研究中尽早揭示和了解人类认知的规律与机制，在应用研究中能牢牢把握智能模拟的正确方向。     

关于计算的若干哲学思考

计算无疑已经成为我们这个时代最有影响的概念之一，然而，人们对于究竟什么是计算却存在着各不相同的看法。本文基于对计算概念的拓展过程和不同诠释的考察，提出并论证了一种关于计算的广义规定，即计算就是信息加工的过程；在此基础上，进一步探讨了与计算概念密切相关的丘奇-图灵论题和正在兴起的泛计算主义思潮。     

Quantum Mechanics and Computation

In quantum computation non classical features such as superposition states and entanglement are used to solve problems in new ways, impossible on classical digital computers.We illustrate by Deutsch algorithm how a quantum computer can use superposition states to outperform any classical computer. We comment on the view of a quantum computer as a massive parallel computer and recall Amdahls law for a classical parallel computer. We argue that the view on quantum computation as a massive parallel computation disregards the presence of entanglement in a general quantum computation and the non classical way in which parallel results are combined to obtain the final output.     

A Physical Approach to the Construction of Cognition and to Cognitive Evolution

It is shown that the method of operationaldefinition of theoretical terms applied inphysics may well support constructivist ideasin cognitive sciences when extended toobservational terms. This leads to unexpectedresults for the notion of reality, inductionand for the problem why mathematics is sosuccessful in physics.A theory of cognitive operators is proposedwhich are implemented somewhere in our brainand which transform certain states of oursensory apparatus into what we call perceptionsin the same sense as measurement devicestransform the interaction with the object intomeasurement results. Then, perceivedregularities, as well as the laws of nature wewould derive from them can be seen asinvariants of the cognitive operators concernedand are by this human specific constructsrather than ontologically independent elements.(e.g., the law of energy conservation can bederived from the homogeneity of time and bythis depends on our mental time metricgenerator). So, reality in so far it isrepresented by the laws of nature has no longeran independent ontological status. This isopposed to Campbell's `natural selectionepistemology'. From this it is shown that thereholds an incompleteness theorem for physicallaws similar to Gödels incompletenesstheorem for mathematical axioms, i.e., there isno definitive or object `theory of everything'.This constructivist approaches to cognitionwill allow a coherent and consistent model ofboth cognitive and organic evolution. Whereasthe classical view sees the two evolutionrather dichotomously (for ex.: most scientistssee cognitive evolution converging towards adefinitive world picture, whereas organicevolution obviously has no specific focus (the`pride of creation').     

Spatio-Cultural Evolution as Information Dynamics: Part I

A view of evolution is presented in this paper (a two paper series), intended as a methodological infrastructure for modeling spatio-cultural systems (the design outline of such a model is presented in paper II). A motivation for the re-articulation of evolution as information dynamics is the phenomenologically discovered prerequisite of embedding a meaning-attributing apparatus in any and all models of spatio-cultural systems. An evolution is construed as the dynamics of a complex system comprised of memory devices, connected in an ordered fashion (not randomly) by information-exchanges. An information-exchange transpires when the recipient system adopts a strategy (a continuum of events) that eventually changes its structure; namely, after the exchange, it contains and conveys different information. These memory devices??sub-systems??are also similarly constructed complex system. Only a part of the information is retained by a system in its physical-memory storage, which eventually loses this function too, when the ability to retrieve a common enough structure is lost. The entire amount of information is a system??s structure of connections (information exchanges); it is contained (apparently stored) dynamically when a system is observed in a temporarily stable state. This temporary permanence??robustness and resilience??is attained dynamically; namely, enabled by changes taking place in its sub-systems and in each of their sub-systems. Therefore, for modeling such a system a multi-layer/multi-scale approach is preferable. It enables the addition and subtraction of an interim scale and the consideration of such a scale as a micro or a macro (thus initiating a maneuver up or down scale) according to an ad-hoc requirement of the model, which imitates an envisaged sub system (called an ??Inner World??), to which a certain range of decisions is relegated. This dynamics is driven (in time) by dynamically originated information growth, as defined by Shannon; i.e. by the fact that each of certain state transitions have occurred sometime in the past of the system just so and not otherwise, and by the fact that they have occurred in a certain order. Therefore, each ??history?? and memory retrieval availability of information is unique, and thus can be used to differentiate meanings. Hence, there cannot be a comprehensive solution to the meaning attribution model-design challenge. However, the observation that at the core of each envisaged complex system, moving in time according to a rounded logic, there is an information manipulating device, operating necessarily according to a Boolean logic, can be copied into the design of a model. This observation enables, therefore, the embedding of a specific, locally fitted, meaning attributing device, which is an information manipulating mechanism (it splices/attaches one segment of information to another??its meaning). However, this is just a framework; the actual solution has still to be found locally??for each subject system. Such a solution is demonstrated for the change in location or layout in the Israeli city in paper II.     

古代象数观和现代数字化技术思想

当今的数字化技术可从周易象数观的"象与数"相互转换中,发现其思想源头.正如西方的"原子论"可溯及古希腊哲学家所提出的"原子"概念和17世纪德国数学家莱布尼兹发现周易的"二进制"功能一样.<系辞>说象,拟诸形容而有象与极数而定象,说明了模拟和数字的两种过程.河图、洛书的图像,隐含着诸多神秘的数字关系,是世界上图像和数字之间完美结合的典范.邵雍给六十四卦赋以数字有两套系统:一是卦象的序数(含"加一倍"法);二是卦象的所当之数.周易的"数字化"思想,的确是开了先河.周易象数观的确有再研究的必要.     

Taxonomy Based Models for Reasoning: Making Inferences from Electronic Road Sign Information

Taxonomy Based modeling was applied to describe drivers’ mental models of variable message signs (VMS’s) displayed on expressways. Progress in road telematics has made it possible to introduce variable message signs (VMS’s). Sensors embedded in the carriageway every 500m record certain variables (speed, flow rate, etc.) that are transformed in real time into “driving times” to a given destination if road conditions do not change. VMS systems are auto-regulative Man-Machine (AMMI) systems which incorporate a model of the user: if the traffic flow is too high, then drivers should choose alternative routes. In so doing, the traffic flow should decrease. The model of the user is based on suppositions such as: people do not like to waste time, they fully understand the displayed messages, they trust the displayed values, they know of alternative routes. However, people also have a model of the way the system functions. And if they do not believe the contents of the message, they will not act as expected. We collected data through interviews with drivers using the critical incidents technique (Flanagan, 1985). Results show that the mental models that drivers have of the way the VMS system works are various but not numerous and that most of them differ from the“ideal expert” mental model. It is clear that users don’t have an adequate model of how the VMS system works and that VMS planners have a model of user behaviour that does not correspond to the behaviour of the drivers we interviewed. Finally, Taxonomy Based Modeling is discussed as a tool for mental model remediation.     

Discovering the Principle of Finality in Computational Machines

In this essay we argue that the notion of machine necessarily includes its being designed for a purpose. Therefore, being a mechanical system is not enough for being a machine. Since the experimental scientific method excludes any consideration of finality on methodological grounds, it is then also insufficient to fully understand what machines are. Instead in order to understand a machine it is first required to understand its purpose, along with its structure, in clear parallel with Aristotle’s final and formal causes. Obviously, purpose and structure are not machine components that can physically interact with other components; nonetheless they are essential to understanding their operation. This casts an interesting light on the relationship between mind and body: for just as an artifact’s finality and structure explain its operation, so also consciousness is the explanation—not the efficient cause—of specifically human behavior. What machines and human beings have in common is that, in order to understand them, it is necessary to appeal to the principle of finality. Yet while finality is given and extrinsic in the case of machines, we human beings are characterized by the ability to self-propose our own ends. Since the principle of finality is essential to understanding the production of machines, the traditional view in modern Western philosophy that finality lies beyond the scope of objective/scientific knowledge should be rectified to allow for a genuine science of the artificial. We think a correct understanding of final causality will overcome current resistance to this principle.     

民族主义与东亚数学编史问题

分析东亚民族主义产生的背景与东亚民族主义史学观的历史根源,论述民族主义史学观支配下东亚数学国别史编纂的研究取向及其影响。认为,这些国别史都是从民族本位出发,强调本国数学的独立性与主体性,重视本民族数学的独特性与数学成就上的差别,而轻忽东亚数学的整体性与同质性。以西方数学作为参照标准,较强的辉格史倾向在为民族科学文化先进性进行辩护方面发挥重要作用,重视数学史内史研究而忽视外史研究的研究范式也为其所需要。欲消除民族主义数学史观的消极影响,就应该树立“东亚数学一体化”的观点,超越民族,从儒家文化、汉字文化的整体视角来审视东亚数学,并且对东亚数学持连续发展的观点。只有把中国、日本与韩国(还包括越南)数学作为一个整体考察,才有可能全面认识东亚数学思想、数学精神与数学知识体系。     

新中国技术观的演进及研究中的几个问题

新中国成立以来技术现的演进呈现明显的阶段性，这种阶段性与国家政治气候及体制变化密切相关，是不同历史阶段意识形态的反映，影响着该历吏时期技术发展的总体方向、规模与速度。通过对自力更生与技术引进的关系、农本主义传统技术观对工业化思想的影响、国家领导人技术思想的作用、国家意识形态对技术现的影响，以及技术专家与工农群众关系等问题的研究，可以对新中国技术现变化的原因做出一定的解释。     

A Combinatorial Approach to Assess the Separability of Clusters

Separability of clusters is an issue that arises in many different areas, and is often used in a rather vague and subjective manner. We introduce a combinatorial notion of interiority to derive a global view on separability of a set of entities. We develop this approach further to evaluate the overall separability of a partition in the context of cluster analysis. Our approach captures combinatorial and geometrical aspects of data and provides, in addition to numerical evaluations, graphical representations particularly useful when data are not easily visualized. We illustrate the methodology on some real and simulated datasets.     

对“非”达尔文革命的多视角透视(对话)——兼论同时发现者华莱士的境遇

我们从科学思想史、科学哲学、科学知识社会学、系统科学的观点,对达尔文革命进行多视角、全方位的透视:(1)作为达尔文革命的功臣,华莱士确实受了许多委屈,对这种科学史中的"异化"现象,可以用科学知识社会学来进行解读。(2)达尔文的思想历经四次革命的飞跃。(3)达尔文的"自然选择"纲领可以用系统科学观点得到合理解释。(4)作为达尔文纲领的对立面,"宇宙完美设计"纲领仍包含合理内核和启发性。(5)借助于系统科学理解模式,进化论的科学语言与自然神论的宗教语言之间通过转译,有可能进行对话。