Structural characterization of the molecular platform for type III secretion system assembly

Type III secretion systems (TTSSs) are multi-protein macromolecular 'machines' that have a central function in the virulence of many Gram-negative pathogens by directly mediating the secretion and translocation of bacterial proteins (termed effectors) into the cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells. Most of the 20 unique structural components constituting this secretion apparatus are highly conserved among animal and plant pathogens and are also evolutionarily related to proteins in the flagellar-specific export system. Recent electron microscopy experiments have revealed the gross 'needle-shaped' morphology of the TTSS, yet a detailed understanding of the structural characteristics and organization of these protein components within the bacterial membranes is lacking. Here we report the 1.8-A crystal structure of EscJ from enteropathogenic Escherichia coli (EPEC), a member of the YscJ/PrgK family whose oligomerization represents one of the earliest events in TTSS assembly. Crystal packing analysis and molecular modelling indicate that EscJ could form a large 24-subunit 'ring' superstructure with extensive grooves, ridges and electrostatic features. Electron microscopy, labelling and mass spectrometry studies on the orthologous Salmonella typhimurium PrgK within the context of the assembled TTSS support the stoichiometry, membrane association and surface accessibility of the modelled ring. We propose that the YscJ/PrgK protein family functions as an essential molecular platform for TTSS assembly.     

Structure of the E. coli signal recognition particle bound to a translating ribosome

The prokaryotic signal recognition particle (SRP) targets membrane proteins into the inner membrane. It binds translating ribosomes and screens the emerging nascent chain for a hydrophobic signal sequence, such as the transmembrane helix of inner membrane proteins. If such a sequence emerges, the SRP binds tightly, allowing the SRP receptor to lock on. This assembly delivers the ribosome-nascent chain complex to the protein translocation machinery in the membrane. Using cryo-electron microscopy and single-particle reconstruction, we obtained a 16 A structure of the Escherichia coli SRP in complex with a translating E. coli ribosome containing a nascent chain with a transmembrane helix anchor. We also obtained structural information on the SRP bound to an empty E. coli ribosome. The latter might share characteristics with a scanning SRP complex, whereas the former represents the next step: the targeting complex ready for receptor binding. High-resolution structures of the bacterial ribosome and of the bacterial SRP components are available, and their fitting explains our electron microscopic density. The structures reveal the regions that are involved in complex formation, provide insight into the conformation of the SRP on the ribosome and indicate the conformational changes that accompany high-affinity SRP binding to ribosome nascent chain complexes upon recognition of the signal sequence.     

Functional genomic analysis of phagocytosis and identification of a Drosophila receptor for E. coli

The recognition and phagocytosis of microbes by macrophages is a principal aspect of innate immunity that is conserved from insects to humans. Drosophila melanogaster has circulating macrophages that phagocytose microbes similarly to mammalian macrophages, suggesting that insect macrophages can be used as a model to study cell-mediated innate immunity. We devised a double-stranded RNA interference-based screen in macrophage-like Drosophila S2 cells, and have defined 34 gene products involved in phagocytosis. These include proteins that participate in haemocyte development, vesicle transport, actin cytoskeleton regulation and a cell surface receptor. This receptor, Peptidoglycan recognition protein LC (PGRP-LC), is involved in phagocytosis of Gram-negative but not Gram-positive bacteria. Drosophila humoral immunity also distinguishes between Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria through the Imd and Toll pathways, respectively; however, a receptor for the Imd pathway has not been identified. Here we show that PGRP-LC is important for antibacterial peptide synthesis induced by Escherichia coli both in vitro and in vivo. Furthermore, totem mutants, which fail to express PGRP-LC, are susceptible to Gram-negative (E. coli), but not Gram-positive, bacterial infection. Our results demonstrate that PGRP-LC is an essential component for recognition and signalling of Gram-negative bacteria. Furthermore, this functional genomic approach is likely to have applications beyond phagocytosis.     

Model for signal sequence recognition from amino-acid sequence of 54K subunit of signal recognition particle

Protein targeting to the endoplasmic reticulum in mammalian cells is catalysed by signal recognition particle (SRP). Cross-linking experiments have shown that the subunit of relative molecular mass 54,000 (Mr 54K; SRP54) interacts directly with signal sequences as they emerge from the ribosome. Here we present the sequence of a complementary DNA clone of SRP54 which predicts a protein that contains a putative GTP-binding domain and an unusually methionine-rich domain. The properties of this latter domain suggest that it contains the signal sequence binding site. A previously uncharacterized Escherichia coli protein has strong homology to both domains. Closely homologous GTP-binding domains are also found in the alpha-subunit of the SRP receptor (SR alpha, docking protein) in the endoplasmic reticulum membrane and in a second E. coli protein, ftsY, which resembles SR alpha. Recent work has shown that SR alpha is a GTP-binding protein and that GTP is required for the release of SRP from the signal sequence and the ribosome on targeting to the endoplasmic reticulum membrane. We propose that SRP54 and SR alpha use GTP in sequential steps of the targeting reaction and that essential features of such a pathway are conserved from bacteria to mammals.     

YidC mediates membrane protein insertion in bacteria

The basic machinery for the translocation of proteins into or across membranes is remarkably conserved from Escherichia coli to humans. In eukaryotes, proteins are inserted into the endoplasmic reticulum using the signal recognition particle (SRP) and the SRP receptor, as well as the integral membrane Sec61 trimeric complex (composed of alpha, beta and gamma subunits). In bacteria, most proteins are inserted by a related pathway that includes the SRP homologue Ffh, the SRP receptor FtsY, and the SecYEG trimeric complex, where Y and E are related to the Sec61 alpha and gamma subunits, respectively. Proteins in bacteria that exhibit no dependence on the Sec translocase were previously thought to insert into the membrane directly without the aid of a protein machinery. Here we show that membrane insertion of two Sec-independent proteins requires YidC. YidC is essential for E. coli viability and homologues are present in mitochondria and chloroplasts. Depletion of YidC also interferes with insertion of Sec-dependent membrane proteins, but it has only a minor effect on the export of secretory proteins. These results provide evidence for an additional component of the translocation machinery that is specialized for the integration of membrane proteins.     

The innate immune response to bacterial flagellin is mediated by Toll-like receptor 5

The innate immune system recognizes pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) that are expressed on infectious agents, but not on the host. Toll-like receptors (TLRs) recognize PAMPs and mediate the production of cytokines necessary for the development of effective immunity. Flagellin, a principal component of bacterial flagella, is a virulence factor that is recognized by the innate immune system in organisms as diverse as flies, plants and mammals. Here we report that mammalian TLR5 recognizes bacterial flagellin from both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, and that activation of the receptor mobilizes the nuclear factor NF-kappaB and stimulates tumour necrosis factor-alpha production. TLR5-stimulating activity was purified from Listeria monocytogenes culture supernatants and identified as flagellin by tandem mass spectrometry. Expression of L. monocytogenes flagellin in non-flagellated Escherichia coli conferred on the bacterium the ability to activate TLR5, whereas deletion of the flagellin genes from Salmonella typhimurium abrogated TLR5-stimulating activity. All known TLRs signal through the adaptor protein MyD88. Mice challenged with bacterial flagellin rapidly produced systemic interleukin-6, whereas MyD88-null mice did not respond to flagellin. Our data suggest that TLR5, a member of the evolutionarily conserved Toll-like receptor family, has evolved to permit mammals specifically to detect flagellated bacterial pathogens.     

Parallel evolution of virulence in pathogenic Escherichia coli

The mechanisms underlying the evolution and emergence of new bacterial pathogens are not well understood. To elucidate the evolution of pathogenic Escherichia coli strains, here we sequenced seven housekeeping genes to build a phylogenetic tree and trace the history of the acquisition of virulence genes. Compatibility analysis indicates that more than 70% of the informative sites agree with a single phylogeny, suggesting that recombination has not completely obscured the remnants of ancestral chromosomes. On the basis of the rate of synonymous substitution for E. coli and Salmonella enterica (4.7 x 10(-9) per site per year), the radiation of clones began about 9 million years ago and the highly virulent pathogen responsible for epidemics of food poisoning, E. coli O157:H7, separated from a common ancestor of E. coli K-12 as long as 4.5 million years ago. Phylogenetic analysis reveals that old lineages of E. coli have acquired the same virulence factors in parallel, including a pathogenicity island involved in intestinal adhesion, a plasmid-borne haemolysin, and phage-encoded Shiga toxins. Such parallel evolution indicates that natural selection has favoured an ordered acquisition of genes and the progressive build-up of molecular mechanisms that increase virulence.     

In vitro synthesized bacterial outer membrane protein is integrated into bacterial inner membranes but translocated across microsomal membranes

The LamB protein is an integral membrane protein of the outer membrane of Escherichia coli. We have now found that, when synthesized in an E. coli cell-free translation system supplemented with inverted vesicles derived from the E. coli inner membrane, LamB protein is integrated into the vesicle membrane as assayed by its resistance to extraction at alkaline pH. These data suggest that the inner membrane is the primary site for integration of LamB protein prior to subsequent sorting to the outer membrane. When synthesized in a wheat germ cell-free translation system supplemented with canine microsomal membranes, LamB protein is glycosylated at one or two cryptic sites, and surprisingly, it is translocated across instead of being integrated into the vesicle membrane. We suggest that the translocation machinery of the microsomal membrane, although able to recognize the signal sequence(s) of LamB, is unable to recognize its stop-transfer sequence(s), thereby yielding translocation instead of integration.     

松针精油的协同抑菌效应及机制

【目的】研究3种松针精油对供试菌的协同抑菌效应和机制,利用松针精油天然抑菌物质抑制微生物的生长特性,为将松针精油应用于食品、化妆品等领域提供理论依据。【方法】通过微量二倍稀释法测定黑皮油松松针精油(PTEO)、樟子松松针精油(PSEO)、红松松针精油(PKEO)对大肠杆菌(Escherichia coli)、金黄色葡萄球菌(Staphylococcus aureus)、枯草芽孢杆菌(Bacillus subtilis)的抑菌效果,通过棋盘稀释法来测定其协同效果及最佳复配比,以最佳精油复配比研究其对3种供试菌的抑菌机理。【结果】3种精油单独作用时均表现出对3种供试菌较好的抑菌效果,部分复配后效果得到明显提高,针对不同微生物复配最佳抑菌配方为:E.coli用抑菌精油为PTEO和PSEO,浓度均为0.31 μL/mL; S. aureus用抑菌精油为PKEO和PTEO,浓度均为0.16 μL/mL; B. subtilis用抑菌精油为PKEO和PSEO,浓度分别为0.16、0.08 μL/mL。通过复配精油对3种供试菌的抑菌机理研究发现复配精油能够破坏菌体的正常形态,破坏细胞膜的渗透性,导致核酸等大分子物质的泄露,并且对细胞菌体蛋白的合成和积累有干扰作用。【结论】3种精油复配后表现出更好的抑菌作用,精油之间的协同作用可以减少到抑菌效果时精油的用量。     

杀虫防菌Bt工程菌的构建

N-乙酰高丝氨酸内酯（N-acyl-homoserine lactones,AHLs）是革兰氏阴性细菌胞间通讯的信号分子,能够调控许多植物病原菌的致病基因的表达,但如果内酯酶将其水解,则会影响病原菌的致病活性,植物就不会染病。苏云金芽孢杆菌（Bacillus thuringiensis,Bt）,作为生物杀虫剂已有多年使用的历史,本研究通过生物技术手段成功地构建了携带信号分子AHL水解酶基因的穿梭载体pHTss10304,并转入到具有Bt中,构建成工程菌Bt24、工程菌Bt33、工程菌Bt34和工程菌Bt36。通过设计,实现了Bt工程菌的多功能改造,为BT工程菌的应用提供了更为广阔的空间,为生物防治菌的开发现有菌剂提供了新的思路。     

Homology of 54K protein of signal-recognition particle, docking protein and two E. coli proteins with putative GTP-binding domains

Most proteins exported from mammalian cells contain a signal sequence which mediates targeting to and insertion into the membrane of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). Involved in this process are the signal-recognition particle (SRP) and docking protein (DP), the receptor for SRP in the ER membrane. SRP interacts with the signal sequence on nascent polypeptide chains and retards their further elongation, which resumes only after interaction of the arrested ribosomal complex with the docking protein. SRP is a ribonucleoprotein particle comprising a 7S RNA and six polypeptides with relative molecular masses (Mr) of 9,000 (9K) 14K, 19K, 54K, 68K and 72K (ref. 1). The 9K and 14K proteins are essential for elongation arrest and the 68K-72K heterodimer is required for docking to the ER membrane. The 54K protein binds to the signal sequence when it emerges from the ribosome. Docking protein consists of two polypeptides, a 72K alpha-subunit (DP alpha) and a 30K beta-subunit (DP beta). No components structurally homologous to SRP and docking protein have yet been found in yeast or Escherichia coli. To understand the molecular nature of the interaction between the signal sequence and its receptor(s) we have characterized a complementary DNA coding for the 54K protein of SRP. Significant sequence homology was found to part of DP alpha and two E. coli proteins of unknown function. The homologous region includes a putative GTP-binding domain.     

猪胸膜放线杆菌中黏附素的研究进展

胸膜肺炎放线杆菌(Actinobacillus pleuropneumoniae,APP)是引起猪传染性胸膜肺炎疾病的病原菌,APP引起猪致病的毒力因子有多种,其中黏附素作为细菌粘附宿主的第一步中的关键作用被广泛关注.黏附是APP感染宿主的第一步,分泌到革兰氏阴性菌表面的自转运黏附索调节着细菌对宿主细胞的黏附,是重要的...     

南宁市新生儿腹泻病源流行病学研究

为了掌握南宁市新生儿腹泻的病源谱和医院内感染特点，有效控制新生儿腹泻，作者于１９８８年３月至１９９３年２月对南宁市内５家医院７８７例新生儿腹泻粪便进行了病原检测和外环境监测。检出致泻病原体２６１例，总检出率３３２％。共检出病原体２４种，细菌性感染占９６６％。社会获得性腹泻检出率为２７５％，病原性大肠菌为主要致泻菌（７１３％），以ＥＰＥＣ最多（８８／１６０）。医院内获得性腹泻检出率４９０％，沙门氏菌为主（４５５％），次为ＥＰＥＣ、绿脓杆菌、变形杆菌。社会外环境（水源）病原性大肠菌连续监测结果，与同期新生儿病原性大肠菌肠炎粪便分离的菌型基本相同。医院内外环境监测结果表明，暴发性流行的传染源来自社会获得性患婴及住院患腹泻的产妇。医院内流行性腹泻的主要原因系婴儿粪便管理不当、消毒制度不严和工作人员双手不洁。     

改性PP非织造布的抗菌机理探讨

研究了含吡啶盐基团的改性聚丙烯（ＰＰ）非织造布的抗菌机理，分析了大肠杆菌在改性聚丙烯非织造布上的粘附热力学过程。发现对于不含吡啶盐基团的聚丙烯非织造布表面，粘附过程中的自由能变化越负，对粘附细菌越有利；改性聚丙烯非织造布对大肠杆菌（Ｅ．ｃｏｌｉ）的滤除作用主要是其表面的吡啶盐功能基团与大肠杆菌之间的静电相互作用的结果；活性检测结果显示这种粘附作用是一种生态捕捉作用。     

The Shigella flexneri effector OspI deamidates UBC13 to dampen the inflammatory response

Many bacterial pathogens can enter various host cells and then survive intracellularly, transiently evade humoral immunity, and further disseminate to other cells and tissues. When bacteria enter host cells and replicate intracellularly, the host cells sense the invading bacteria as damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs) and pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) by way of various pattern recognition receptors. As a result, the host cells induce alarm signals that activate the innate immune system. Therefore, bacteria must modulate host inflammatory signalling and dampen these alarm signals. How pathogens do this after invading epithelial cells remains unclear, however. Here we show that OspI, a Shigella flexneri effector encoded by ORF169b on the large plasmid and delivered by the type ΙΙΙ secretion system, dampens acute inflammatory responses during bacterial invasion by suppressing the tumour-necrosis factor (TNF)-receptor-associated factor 6 (TRAF6)-mediated signalling pathway. OspI is a glutamine deamidase that selectively deamidates the glutamine residue at position 100 in UBC13 to a glutamic acid residue. Consequently, the E2 ubiquitin-conjugating activity required for TRAF6 activation is inhibited, allowing S. flexneri OspI to modulate the diacylglycerol-CBM (CARD-BCL10-MALT1) complex-TRAF6-nuclear-factor-κB signalling pathway. We determined the 2.0 ? crystal structure of OspI, which contains a putative cysteine-histidine-aspartic acid catalytic triad. A mutational analysis showed this catalytic triad to be essential for the deamidation of UBC13. Our results suggest that S. flexneri inhibits acute inflammatory responses in the initial stage of infection by targeting the UBC13-TRAF6 complex.     

洱海下游肠道致病菌噬菌体分离与鉴定

目的:分离洱海下游水体中的肠道致病菌噬菌体,了解肠道致病菌污染情况。方法:通过噬菌斑法从洱海下游水体中分离和鉴定各种肠道致病菌噬菌体。结果:成功分离出了痢疾杆菌噬菌体、伤寒杆菌噬菌体、乙型副伤寒杆菌噬菌体、大肠杆菌噬菌体4种肠道致病菌噬菌体。结论:洱海下游水体存在痢疾杆菌、伤寒杆菌、乙型副伤寒杆菌、大肠杆菌污染,提示需进一步加强大理周边生活污水排放的治理工作。     

The bacterial conjugation protein TrwB resembles ring helicases and F1-ATPase

The transfer of DNA across membranes and between cells is a central biological process; however, its molecular mechanism remains unknown. In prokaryotes, trans-membrane passage by bacterial conjugation, is the main route for horizontal gene transfer. It is the means for rapid acquisition of new genetic information, including antibiotic resistance by pathogens. Trans-kingdom gene transfer from bacteria to plants or fungi and even bacterial sporulation are special cases of conjugation. An integral membrane DNA-binding protein, called TrwB in the Escherichia coli R388 conjugative system, is essential for the conjugation process. This large multimeric protein is responsible for recruiting the relaxosome DNA-protein complex, and participates in the transfer of a single DNA strand during cell mating. Here we report the three-dimensional structure of a soluble variant of TrwB. The molecule consists of two domains: a nucleotide-binding domain of alpha/beta topology, reminiscent of RecA and DNA ring helicases, and an all-alpha domain. Six equivalent protein monomers associate to form an almost spherical quaternary structure that is strikingly similar to F1-ATPase. A central channel, 20 A in width, traverses the hexamer.