Recognition and plasma clearance of endotoxin by scavenger receptors.

Lipid A is the active moiety of lipopolysaccharide (LPS, also referred to as endotoxin), a surface component of Gram-negative bacteria that stimulates macrophage activation and causes endotoxic shock. Macrophages can bind, internalize and partially degrade LPS, lipid A and its bioactive precursor, lipid IVA. We report here that lipid IVA binding and subsequent metabolism to a less active form by macrophage-like RAW 264.7 cells is mediated by the macrophage scavenger receptor. Scavenger-receptor ligands inhibit lipid IVA binding to, and metabolism by, RAW cells, and lipid IVA binds to type I and type II bovine scavenger receptors on transfected Chinese hamster ovary cells. Although in vitro competition studies with RAW cells indicate that scavenger receptor binding is not involved in LPS or lipid IVA-induced stimulation of macrophages, in vivo studies show that scavenger-receptor ligands greatly inhibit hepatic uptake of lipid IVA in mice. Thus, scavenger receptors expressed on macrophages may have an important role in the clearance and detoxification of endotoxin in animals.     

A macrophage Fc gamma receptor and the mast cell receptor for IgE share an identical subunit

Fc receptors for immunoglobulins are found on many immune cells and trigger essential functions of the immune defence system. With the exception of the high-affinity receptor for immunoglobulin E (Fc epsilon RI), these receptors were thought to consist of single polypeptides. Fc epsilon RI is a tetrameric complex of one alpha-subunit, one beta-subunit and two gamma-subunits. Here we report the cloning of a polypeptide identical to the gamma-chains of Fc epsilon RI, from mouse macrophages that do not express this receptor. Biosynthetic labelling and gene transfer together show that these gamma-chains associate with one of the macrophage receptors (Fc gamma RIIa). The human homologue, Fc gamma RIII (CD16), from natural killer cells is also expected to associate with gamma-chains. It is possible that these gamma-chains and the homologous zeta-chains of the T-cell antigen receptor belong to a new family of related proteins which share a common role in the signal transducing pathway.     

中性红染料摄入法检测人肺泡巨噬细胞吞噬活性探讨

本文作者对中性红染料摄入法的实验条件──肺泡灌洗细胞贴壁时间选择；摄入中性红时间对吞噬活性的影响，及细胞数量时吞噬活性的影响作了探讨．并对肺癌患者肺泡巨噬细胞吞噬活性作了检测．结果表明，此方法用于检测人肺泡巨噬细胞吞噬活性不但指标客观、准确，而且操作简便、省时、微量，适于大量样本检测．     

The Toll-like receptor 2 is recruited to macrophage phagosomes and discriminates between pathogens.

Macrophages orchestrate innate immunity by phagocytosing pathogens and coordinating inflammatory responses. Effective defence requires the host to discriminate between different pathogens. The specificity of innate immune recognition in Drosophila is mediated by the Toll family of receptors; Toll mediates anti-fungal responses, whereas 18-wheeler mediates anti-bacterial defence. A large number of Toll homologues have been identified in mammals, and Toll-like receptor 4 is critical in responses to Gram-negative bacteria. Here we show that Toll-like receptor 2 is recruited specifically to macrophage phagosomes containing yeast, and that a point mutation in the receptor abrogates inflammatory responses to yeast and Gram-positive bacteria, but not to Gram-negative bacteria. Thus, during the phagocytosis of pathogens, two classes of innate immune receptors cooperate to mediate host defence: phagocytic receptors, such as the mannose receptor, signal particle internalization, and the Toll-like receptors sample the contents of the vacuole and trigger an inflammatory response appropriate to defence against the specific organism.     

结核分枝杆菌对感染小鼠肺泡巨噬细胞转铁蛋白受体和铁蛋白表达的影响

探讨不同毒力结核分枝杆菌感染对小鼠肺泡巨噬细胞转铁蛋白受体(TfR)和铁蛋白(Fn)表达的影响及其时相性变化。利用制备的卡介苗(以下简称BCG)和结核分枝杆菌国际标准强毒株H37Rv株(以下简称H37Rv株)悬液,分别经小鼠尾静脉注射,建立各组小鼠感染模型,各组小鼠感染模型建立成功后,分别于第1、3、5、7、9、11、13、15天,进行各组小鼠肺泡灌洗,收集小鼠肺泡灌洗液,获取各组小鼠肺泡巨噬细胞。应用ELISA方法和Western blot技术检测各组小鼠肺泡巨噬细胞TfR和Fn的表达。利用ELISA方法检测各组小鼠肺泡巨噬细胞TfR的表达结果显示:H37RV组与BCG组小鼠肺泡巨噬细胞TfR表达均高于空白对照组,在感染第7、9、11天差异最明显,具有统计学意义(P0.05)。利用Western blot技术检测各组小鼠肺泡巨噬细胞TfR表达结果显示:于模型建成后第7、9、11天,H37RN组、BCG组、空白对照组三组之间差异有统计学意义(P0.05)。用ELISA方法和Western blot技术检测各组小鼠肺泡巨噬细胞内Fn表达结果显示:于模型建成后第7、9、11天,H37RV组与BCG组的小鼠肺泡巨噬细胞内Fn表达量明显减低,并且于第7天时表达量最第,异有统计学意义(P0.05)。结核分枝杆菌感染小鼠,导致小鼠肺泡巨噬细胞TfR的表达增高,而Fn的表达降低。不同毒力的结核杆菌感染后Fn蛋白表达差异并不明显,而不同毒力的结核杆菌感染后TfR蛋白的表达有差异性。     

Transfer of diabetes in mice prevented by blockade of adhesion-promoting receptor on macrophages

Insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (IDDM) is a disease with an autoimmune aetiology. The non-obese diabetic mouse is a good spontaneous animal model of the human disease, with IDDM developing in 50-80% of female mice by the age of 6 months. The disease can be transferred by splenic T cells from diabetic donors and is prevented by T-cell depletion. The mechanism(s) by which the beta cell is specifically destroyed is not known, but T cells and macrophages have both been implicated, based on the presence of macrophages in the infiltrated islet and the ability of chronic silica treatment to prevent disease. The monoclonal antibody 5C6 is specific for the myelomonocytic adhesion-promoting type-3 complement receptor (CR3 or CD11b/CD18) and does not bind to T cells. Here we show that blockade of macrophage CR3 in vivo prevents intra-islet infiltration by both macrophages and T cells and inhibits development of IDDM. We conclude that both T cells and macrophages have an essential role in the onset of IDDM.     

Platelet secretory products inhibit lipoprotein metabolism in macrophages

Macrophages possess a receptor that binds low-density lipoproteins (LDL) containing lysine residues modified by acetylation (Ac LDL), acetoacetylation (AcAc LDL) or malondialdehyde treatment. This receptor (referred to as the Ac LDL receptor or scavenger receptor) internalizes the bound lipoprotein. As a consequence, massive amounts of cholesteryl esters accumulate so that macrophages in culture resemble foam cells found in atherosclerotic lesions. In an effort to identify an unmodified mammalian macromolecule that binds to the Ac LDL receptor, we investigated whether platelet secretory products affect the receptor-mediated endocytosis of chemically modified lipoproteins. Platelets are a potential source of such activity because they exist in close association with foam cells in developing atherosclerotic lesions. Our study demonstrates that human blood platelets secrete a product that inhibits the binding and uptake of AcAc LDL by mouse peritoneal macrophages and the subsequent accumulation of cholesteryl esters. This is the first indication that an endogenous macromolecule interacts with Ac LDL receptor on macrophages.     

The NLRC4 inflammasome receptors for bacterial flagellin and type III secretion apparatus

Inflammasomes are large cytoplasmic complexes that sense microbial infections/danger molecules and induce caspase-1 activation-dependent cytokine production and macrophage inflammatory death. The inflammasome assembled by the NOD-like receptor (NLR) protein NLRC4 responds to bacterial flagellin and a conserved type III secretion system (TTSS) rod component. How the NLRC4 inflammasome detects the two bacterial products and the molecular mechanism of NLRC4 inflammasome activation are not understood. Here we show that NAIP5, a BIR-domain NLR protein required for Legionella pneumophila replication in mouse macrophages, is a universal component of the flagellin-NLRC4 pathway. NAIP5 directly and specifically interacted with flagellin, which determined the inflammasome-stimulation activities of different bacterial flagellins. NAIP5 engagement by flagellin promoted a physical NAIP5-NLRC4 association, rendering full reconstitution of a flagellin-responsive NLRC4 inflammasome in non-macrophage cells. The related NAIP2 functioned analogously to NAIP5, serving as a specific inflammasome receptor for TTSS rod proteins such as Salmonella PrgJ and Burkholderia BsaK. Genetic analysis of Chromobacterium violaceum infection revealed that the TTSS needle protein CprI can stimulate NLRC4 inflammasome activation in human macrophages. Similarly, CprI is specifically recognized by human NAIP, the sole NAIP family member in human. The finding that NAIP proteins are inflammasome receptors for bacterial flagellin and TTSS apparatus components further predicts that the remaining NAIP family members may recognize other unidentified microbial products to activate NLRC4 inflammasome-mediated innate immunity.     

Macrophage-specific PPARgamma controls alternative activation and improves insulin resistance

Obesity and insulin resistance, the cardinal features of metabolic syndrome, are closely associated with a state of low-grade inflammation. In adipose tissue chronic overnutrition leads to macrophage infiltration, resulting in local inflammation that potentiates insulin resistance. For instance, transgenic expression of Mcp1 (also known as chemokine ligand 2, Ccl2) in adipose tissue increases macrophage infiltration, inflammation and insulin resistance. Conversely, disruption of Mcp1 or its receptor Ccr2 impairs migration of macrophages into adipose tissue, thereby lowering adipose tissue inflammation and improving insulin sensitivity. These findings together suggest a correlation between macrophage content in adipose tissue and insulin resistance. However, resident macrophages in tissues display tremendous heterogeneity in their activities and functions, primarily reflecting their local metabolic and immune microenvironment. While Mcp1 directs recruitment of pro-inflammatory classically activated macrophages to sites of tissue damage, resident macrophages, such as those present in the adipose tissue of lean mice, display the alternatively activated phenotype. Despite their higher capacity to repair tissue, the precise role of alternatively activated macrophages in obesity-induced insulin resistance remains unknown. Using mice with macrophage-specific deletion of the peroxisome proliferator activated receptor-gamma (PPARgamma), we show here that PPARgamma is required for maturation of alternatively activated macrophages. Disruption of PPARgamma in myeloid cells impairs alternative macrophage activation, and predisposes these animals to development of diet-induced obesity, insulin resistance, and glucose intolerance. Furthermore, gene expression profiling revealed that downregulation of oxidative phosphorylation gene expression in skeletal muscle and liver leads to decreased insulin sensitivity in these tissues. Together, our findings suggest that resident alternatively activated macrophages have a beneficial role in regulating nutrient homeostasis and suggest that macrophage polarization towards the alternative state might be a useful strategy for treating type 2 diabetes.     

HIV susceptibility conferred to human fibroblasts by cytomegalovirus-induced Fc receptor

The main receptor for the human immunodeficiency viruses type 1 and 2 (HIV-1 and HIV-2) on T and B lymphocytes, monocytes and macrophages is the CD4 antigen 1-3. Infection of these cells is blocked by monoclonal antibodies to CD4(1,2) and by recombinant soluble CD4(4-9). Expression of transfected CD4 on the surface of HeLa and other human cells renders them susceptible to HIV infection 10. HIV-antibody complexes can also infect monocytes and macrophages by means of receptors for the Fc portion of immunoglobulins (FcR)11-13), or complement receptors 14,15. The expression of IgG FcRs can be induced in cells infected with human herpes viruses such as herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1)16,17 and human cytomegalovirus (CMV)18-21. Here we demonstrate that FcRs induced by CMV allow immune complexes of HIV to infect fibroblasts otherwise not permissive to HIV infection. Infection was inhibited by prior incubation with human IgG, but not by anti-CD4 antibody or by recombinant soluble CD4. Once HIV had entered CMV-infected cells by means of the FcR, its replication could be enhanced by CMV transactivating factors. Synergism between HIV and herpes viruses could also operate in vivo, enhancing immunosuppression and permitting the spread of HIV to cells not expressing CD4.     

A complementary DNA clone for a macrophage-lymphocyte Fc receptor

Macrophages, granulocytes and many lymphocytes express or secrete receptors for the Fc domain of immunoglobulins (Ig). These Fc receptors (FcRs) are heterogeneous and can be distinguished on the basis of their cellular distribution and specificities for different immunoglobulin isotypes. Although their functions are not completely understood, FcRs are known to be involved in triggering various effector cell functions and in regulating differentiation and development of B-cells. One of the best characterized is the mouse macrophage-lymphocyte receptor for IgG1 and IgG2b (ref. 5). On macrophages, this FcR mediates the endocytosis of antibody-antigen complexes via coated pits and coated vesicles, the phagocytosis of Ig-coated particles, and the release of various inflammatory and cytotoxic agents. It is possible that the receptor possesses an intrinsic ligand-activated ion channel activity responsible for some of these functions. The IgG1/IgG2b FcR has been isolated and shown to be a transmembrane glycoprotein of relative molecular mass (Mr) 47,000-60,000 (47-60 K) containing four N-linked oligosaccharide chains and a large (greater than 10K) cytoplasmic domain. It is also immunologically indistinguishable from the murine Ly-17 alloantigen which, in turn, is tightly linked to the Mls lymphocyte activation locus. Here we describe the isolation and characterisation of a complementary DNA clone encoding the whole of the IgG1/IgG2b FcR expressed by the mouse macrophage-like cell line P388D1. The receptor is a member of the immunoglobulin superfamily and, like Ly-17, maps to the distal portion of chromosome 1. cDNA probes detect one or two mRNA species in FcR+ macrophage and B-cell lines, but not in FcR- cells or a receptor-deficient variant derived from a FcR+ B-cell line. Finally, DNA hybridization analysis indicates the receptor gene is partially deleted or rearranged in the FcR- variant.     

Structure of the receptor for platelet-derived growth factor helps define a family of closely related growth factor receptors

The primary structure of the receptor for platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF), determined by means of cloning a cDNA that encodes the murine pre-PDGF receptor, is closely related to that of the v-kit oncogene product and the receptor for macrophage colony stimulating factor (CSF-1). Common structural features include the presence of long sequences that interrupt the tyrosine-specific protein kinase domains of each molecule. The PDGF and CSF-1 receptors also share a characteristic distribution of extracellular cysteine residues. Ubiquitin is covalently bound to the purified PDGF receptor, the human gene for which is on chromosome 5.     

Cloning and expression of human and rat D1 dopamine receptors

The importance of the dopaminergic system in brain function has been emphasized by its association with neurological and psychiatric disorders such as Parkinson's disease and schizophrenia. On the basis of their biochemical and pharmacological characteristics, dopamine receptors are classified into D1 and D2 subtypes. As the most abundant dopamine receptor in the central nervous system, D1 receptors seem to mediate some behavioural responses, modulate activity of D2 dopamine receptors, and regulate neuron growth and differentiation. The D dopamine receptor has been cloned by low-stringency screening. We report here the cloning of human and rat D1 dopamine receptors by applying an approach based on the polymerase chain reaction. The cloned human D1 dopamine receptor has been characterized on the basis of four criteria: the deduced amino-acid sequence, which reveals that it is a G protein-coupled receptor; the tissue distribution of its messenger RNA, which is compatible with that of the D1 dopamine receptor; its pharmacological profile when transfected into COS-7 cells; and its ability to stimulate the accumulation of cyclic AMP in human 293 cells.     

Identity of tumour necrosis factor and the macrophage-secreted factor cachectin

In mammals, several well-defined metabolic changes occur during infection, many of which are attributable to products of the reticuloendothelial system. Among these changes, a hypertriglyceridaemic state is frequently evident, resulting from defective triglyceride clearance, caused by systemic suppression of the enzyme lipoprotein lipase (LPL). We have found previously that macrophages secrete the hormone cachectin, which specifically suppresses LPL activity in cultured adipocytes (3T3-L1 cells). When originally purified from RAW 264.7 (mouse macrophage) cells, cachectin was shown to have a pI of 4.7, a subunit size of relative molecular mass (Mr) 17,000 and to form non-covalent multimers. A receptor for cachectin was identified on non-tumorigenic cultured cells and on normal mouse liver membranes. A new high-yield purification technique has enabled us to determine further details of the structure of mouse cachectin. We now report that a high degree of homology exists between the N-terminal sequence of mouse cachectin and the N-terminal sequence recently determined for human tumour necrosis factor (TNF). Purified cachectin also possesses potent TNF activity in vitro. These findings suggest that the 'cachectin' and 'TNF' activities of murine macrophage conditioned medium are attributable to a single protein, which modulates the metabolic activities of normal as well as neoplastic cells through interaction with specific high-affinity receptors.     

氯屈膦酸二钠-超顺磁性氧化铁脂质体减轻重症急性胰腺炎肾损伤

研究目的：探讨氯属膦酸二钠-超顺磁性氧化铁（SPIO）脂质体对重症急性胰腺炎（SAP）肾损伤的保护作用。创新要点：围绕SAP并发多器官损伤这一核心问题,联系巨噬细胞在SAP发病过程中的作用,使用纳米脂质体携带氯屈膦酸二钠及SPIO,以及利用自体巨噬细胞对SAP时多器官损伤的定性靶向性以及磁性纳米颗粒的超顺磁性,应用磁共振成像（MRI）对SAP并发多器官损伤进行早期诊断。结合使用氯屈膦酸二钠,使其促进巨噬细胞的凋亡,减少其在急性胰腺炎早期产生炎症介质,阻止全身性炎症反应的进程,从而实现对多器官损伤的保护作用。研究方法：采用胰腺被膜下均匀注射5％牛磺胆酸钠制作SAP模型。SD大鼠48只,随机分为对照组（C组）、空白SPIO脂质休组（P组）和氯屈膦酸二钠＋SPIO脂质体组（T组）。P组和T组大鼠制作SAP模型。制模2h和6h后取肠系膜上静脉血液,检测各组大鼠血清中淀粉酶、尿素氮、血肌酐和肿瘤坏死因子-α的含量,观察胰腺及肾组织的病理学变化及进行病理评分,通过检测肾组织的TUNEL染色及CD68表达研究氯属膦酸二钠-超顺磁性氧化铁脂质体对肾组织巨噬细胞凋亡的影响并进行MRI诊断。重要结论：氯屈膦酸二钠-超顺磁性氧化铁脂质体可选择性清除单核／巨噬细胞,减少炎症介质释放,对SAP大鼠胰腺及肾损伤有保护作用。SPIO可作为MRI示踪。     

The colony stimulating factor-1 receptor associates with and activates phosphatidylinositol-3 kinase

Colony stimulating factor-1 (CSF-1) is a lineage-specific growth factor required for proliferation and survival of mononuclear phagocytes and their precursors. The CSF-1 receptor belongs to a family of ligand-activated protein-tyrosine kinases. Activation of the platelet-derived growth factor receptor, but not the CSF-1 receptor, leads to an increase in phospholipase C activity and a subsequent elevation in intracellular calcium. Recent studies have shown that a novel phosphoinositol (PtdIns) kinase, termed PtdIns-3 kinase, is stimulated by the platelet-derived growth factor receptor and certain oncogenes in the protein-tyrosine kinase family. PtdIns-3 kinase phosphorylates the D-3 hydroxyl position of the inositol ring of PtdIns, and its products do not participate in the generation of the second messenger inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate (Ins(1,4,5)P3). Here we report that addition of CSF-1 is followed by activation of PtdIns-3 kinase in a macrophage cell line (P388 D1), which contains CSF-1 receptors, and in BALB/c fibroblasts made to express the human CSF-1 receptor. Furthermore, we show that activation of the CSF-1 receptor results in the accumulation in intact cells of polyphosphoinositides phosphorylated at the D-3 position of the inositol ring. Thus activation of the CSF-1 receptor stimulates PtdIns-3 kinase activity, indicating a novel pathway for CSF-1 receptor-mediated signal transduction.     

The ectodomain of Toll-like receptor 9 is cleaved to generate a functional receptor

Mammalian Toll-like receptors (TLRs) 3, 7, 8 and 9 initiate immune responses to infection by recognizing microbial nucleic acids; however, these responses come at the cost of potential autoimmunity owing to inappropriate recognition of self nucleic acids. The localization of TLR9 and TLR7 to intracellular compartments seems to have a role in facilitating responses to viral nucleic acids while maintaining tolerance to self nucleic acids, yet the cell biology regulating the transport and localization of these receptors remains poorly understood. Here we define the route by which TLR9 and TLR7 exit the endoplasmic reticulum and travel to endolysosomes in mouse macrophages and dendritic cells. The ectodomains of TLR9 and TLR7 are cleaved in the endolysosome, such that no full-length protein is detectable in the compartment where ligand is recognized. Notably, although both the full-length and cleaved forms of TLR9 are capable of binding ligand, only the processed form recruits MyD88 on activation, indicating that this truncated receptor, rather than the full-length form, is functional. Furthermore, conditions that prevent receptor proteolysis, including forced TLR9 surface localization, render the receptor non-functional. We propose that ectodomain cleavage represents a strategy to restrict receptor activation to endolysosomal compartments and prevent TLRs from responding to self nucleic acids.