Role of PHABULOSA and PHAVOLUTA in determining radial patterning in shoots

The upper side of the angiosperm leaf is specialized for efficient capture of sunlight whereas the lower side is specialized for gas exchange. In Arabidopsis, the establishment of polarity in the leaf probably requires the generation and perception of positional information along the radial (adaxial versus abaxial or central versus peripheral) dimension of the plant. This is because the future upper (adaxial) side of the leaf develops from cells closer to the centre of the shoot, whereas the future under (abaxial) side develops from cells located more peripherally. Here we implicate the Arabidopsis PHABULOSA and PHAVOLUTA genes in the perception of radial positional information in the leaf primordium. Dominant phabulosa (phb) and phavoluta (phv) mutations cause a dramatic transformation of abaxial leaf fates into adaxial leaf fates. They do so by altering the predicted sterol/lipid-binding domains of ATHB14 and ATHB9, proteins of previously unknown function that also contain DNA-binding motifs. This change probably renders the protein constitutively active, implicating this domain as a central regulator of protein function and the PHB and PHV proteins as receptors for an adaxializing signal.     

Spatially restricted microRNA directs leaf polarity through ARGONAUTE1

Gene regulation by RNA interference requires the functions of the PAZ domain protein Argonaute. In plants, mutations in ARGONAUTE1 (AGO1) are associated with distinctive developmental defects that suggest a role for microRNA (miRNA) in organ polarity. Potential targets of miRNA regulation are the homeodomain/leucine zipper genes PHABULOSA (PHB) and PHAVOLUTA (PHV). These genes are expressed in a polar fashion in leaf primordia and are required for adaxial cell fate. Here we show that a 21-nucleotide miRNA that directs cleavage of PHB/PHV messenger RNA accumulates first in the embryonic meristem, and then in the abaxial domain of the developing leaf. miRNA distribution is disrupted by mutations in AGO1, indicating that AGO1 affects the regulation of miRNA. In addition, interactions between homeodomain/leucine zipper genes and an allelic series of ago1 indicate that miRNA acts as a signal to specify leaf polarity.     

Regulation of phyllotaxis by polar auxin transport

The regular arrangement of leaves around a plant's stem, called phyllotaxis, has for centuries attracted the attention of philosophers, mathematicians and natural scientists; however, to date, studies of phyllotaxis have been largely theoretical. Leaves and flowers are formed from the shoot apical meristem, triggered by the plant hormone auxin. Auxin is transported through plant tissues by specific cellular influx and efflux carrier proteins. Here we show that proteins involved in auxin transport regulate phyllotaxis. Our data indicate that auxin is transported upwards into the meristem through the epidermis and the outermost meristem cell layer. Existing leaf primordia act as sinks, redistributing auxin and creating its heterogeneous distribution in the meristem. Auxin accumulation occurs only at certain minimal distances from existing primordia, defining the position of future primordia. This model for phyllotaxis accounts for its reiterative nature, as well as its regularity and stability.     

Control of phyllotaxy by the cytokinin-inducible response regulator homologue ABPHYL1

Phyllotaxy describes the geometric pattern of leaves and flowers, and has intrigued botanists and mathematicians for centuries. How these patterns are initiated is poorly understood, and this is partly due to the paucity of mutants. Signalling by the plant hormone auxin appears to determine the site of leaf initiation; however, this observation does not explain how distinct patterns of phyllotaxy are initiated. abphyl1 (abph1) mutants of maize initiate leaves in a decussate pattern (that is, paired at 180 degrees), in contrast to the alternating or distichous phyllotaxy observed in wild-type maize and other grasses. Here we show that ABPH1 is homologous to two-component response regulators and is induced by the plant hormone cytokinin. ABPH1 is expressed in the embryonic shoot apical meristem, and its spatial expression pattern changes rapidly with cytokinin treatment. We propose that ABPH1 controls phyllotactic patterning by negatively regulating the cytokinin-induced expansion of the shoot meristem, thereby limiting the space available for primordium initiation at the apex.     

Direct control of shoot meristem activity by a cytokinin-activating enzyme

The growth of plants depends on continuous function of the meristems. Shoot meristems are responsible for all the post-embryonic aerial organs, such as leaves, stems and flowers. It has been assumed that the phytohormone cytokinin has a positive role in shoot meristem function. A severe reduction in the size of meristems in a mutant that is defective in all of its cytokinin receptors has provided compelling evidence that cytokinin is required for meristem activity. Here, we report a novel regulation of meristem activity, which is executed by the meristem-specific activation of cytokinins. The LONELY GUY (LOG) gene of rice is required to maintain meristem activity and its loss of function causes premature termination of the shoot meristem. LOG encodes a novel cytokinin-activating enzyme that works in the final step of bioactive cytokinin synthesis. Revising the long-held idea of multistep reactions, LOG directly converts inactive cytokinin nucleotides to the free-base forms, which are biologically active, by its cytokinin-specific phosphoribohydrolase activity. LOG messenger RNA is specifically localized in shoot meristem tips, indicating the activation of cytokinins in a specific developmental domain. We propose the fine-tuning of concentrations and the spatial distribution of bioactive cytokinins by a cytokinin-activating enzyme as a mechanism that regulates meristem activity.     

Asymmetric leaves1 mediates leaf patterning and stem cell function in Arabidopsis

Meristem function in plants requires both the maintenance of stem cells and the specification of founder cells from which lateral organs arise. Lateral organs are patterned along proximodistal, dorsoventral and mediolateral axes. Here we show that the Arabidopsis mutant asymmetric leaves1 (as1) disrupts this process. AS1 encodes a myb domain protein, closely related to PHANTASTICA in Antirrhinum and ROUGH SHEATH2 in maize, both of which negatively regulate knotted-class homeobox genes. AS1 negatively regulates the homeobox genes KNAT1 and KNAT2 and is, in turn, negatively regulated by the meristematic homeobox gene SHOOT MERISTEMLESS. This genetic pathway defines a mechanism for differentiating between stem cells and organ founder cells within the shoot apical meristem and demonstrates that genes expressed in organ primordia interact with meristematic genes to regulate shoot morphogenesis.     

8种柏科植物叶表皮的扫描电镜观察

为了探讨柏科植物叶的微形态学特征和差异,应用扫描电子显微镜对8种柏科植物叶表皮的微形态特征进行了观察．结果发现,本实验所取8种柏科植物叶的气孔器均为椭圆形,副卫细胞5～7个,气孔器主要分布在叶的近轴面上,在刺形叶的远轴面上无气孔;8种柏科植物的叶表皮细胞上一般覆盖着较厚的角质层和蜡质层,不同种柏科植物的叶表皮具有不同的角质和蜡质纹饰;同种柏科植物同型叶的新叶和成熟叶、绿色叶和白色叶的微特征间也有区别,成熟叶的表皮细胞上角质和蜡质较新叶多;日本花柏白色鳞形叶的气孔分布和蜡质纹饰都有一定的特殊性．不同种柏科植物叶的微特征有较大的差别,可以为柏科植物的分类提供一定的依据．     

Stem-cell-triggered immunity through CLV3p-FLS2 signalling

Stem cells in the shoot apical meristem (SAM) of plants are the self-renewable reservoir for leaf, stem and flower organogenesis. In nature, disease-free plants can be regenerated from SAM despite infections elsewhere, which underlies a horticultural practice for decades. However, the molecular basis of the SAM immunity remains unclear. Here we show that the CLAVATA3 peptide (CLV3p), expressed and secreted from stem cells and functioning as a key regulator of stem-cell homeostasis in the SAM of Arabidopsis, can trigger immune signalling and pathogen resistance via the flagellin receptor kinase FLS2 (refs 5, 6). CLV3p-FLS2 signalling acts independently from the stem-cell signalling pathway mediated through CLV1 and CLV2 receptors, and is uncoupled from FLS2-mediated growth suppression. Endogenous CLV3p perception in the SAM by a pattern recognition receptor for bacterial flagellin, FLS2, breaks the previously defined self and non-self discrimination in innate immunity. The dual perception of CLV3p illustrates co-evolution of plant peptide and receptor kinase signalling for both development and immunity. The enhanced immunity in SAM or germ lines may represent a common strategy towards immortal fate in plants and animals.     

毛竹LhcaPe03基因在不同组织中的表达量

摘取毛竹苗幼嫩新鲜叶片,提取RNA,反转录进行RT-PCR,先克隆捕光叶绿素a/b结合蛋白基因Lhca3片段,采用RACE扩增全长,获得一条1 149 bp cDNA的基因,检测后定名为LhcaPe03。从毛竹未出土的笋芽、叶(顶端第一片新叶、老叶)、茎(茎尖、茎秆)中提取RNA备用,根据已测的毛竹LhcaPe03基因序列设计引物,采用实时荧光定量PCR技术,检测毛竹LhcaPe03基因在不同部位的相对表达量。结果显示:LhcaPe03基因在毛竹不同部位的表达差异明显,茎尖和新叶中表达水平较高,在老叶和茎秆中表达量相当低,在笋中几乎没有表达。这说明毛竹新叶的光合能力比老叶强;茎尖和茎秆呈绿色,具有光合能力,茎尖光合能力较强;未出土的笋芽几乎不参加光合。     

Gene regulation: ancient microRNA target sequences in plants

MicroRNAs are an abundant class of small RNAs that are thought to regulate the expression of protein-coding genes in plants and animals. Here we show that the target sequence of two microRNAs, known to regulate genes in the class-III homeodomain-leucine zipper (HD-Zip) gene family of the flowering plant Arabidopsis, is conserved in homologous sequences from all lineages of land plants, including bryophytes, lycopods, ferns and seed plants. We also find that the messenger RNAs from these genes are cleaved within the same microRNA-binding site in representatives of each land-plant group, as they are in Arabidopsis. Our results indicate not only that microRNAs mediate gene regulation in non-flowering as well as flowering plants, but also that the regulation of this class of plant genes dates back more than 400 million years.     

菠菜HD-ZIP III基因家族鉴定与表达分析

植物叶片在生长发育过程中,近-远轴极性的建立与维持是叶片正常行使光合效应、呼吸作用、蒸腾作用的结构基础. HD-ZIP III是重要的叶片近轴极性基因,本研究在菠菜（Spinacia oleracea）基因组中鉴定到3个HD-ZIP III基因家族成员,依次命名为SoHB1,SoHB2和SoHB3,并对其蛋白理化性质、保守结构域和进化关系进行了分析. 研究结果表明：3个HD-ZIP III蛋白都具有4个保守结构域. 共线性分析表明：菠菜SoHB1,SoHB2和SoHB3分别与拟南芥ATHB8,ATREV和ATHB15存在共线性关系. 启动子顺式作用元件预测结果表明：菠菜HD-ZIP III家族基因启动子上游包含光响应、逆境胁迫反应、激素响应等顺式作用元件. 在不同叶型菠菜种质中的表达模式分析结果表明：单戟型叶片的SoHBs表达量最高;此外,经干旱胁迫处理后,SoHB1,SoHB2和SoHB3的基因表达量普遍下降;对菠菜包括根、茎、薹叶、功能叶、薹叶柄、功能叶柄等部位进行表达分析,发现SoHB1在根部表达最为丰富,SoHB2和SoHB3在薹叶处表达最为丰富.     

Cyclin D control of growth rate in plants

The mechanisms by which plants modulate their growth rate in response to environmental and developmental conditions are unknown, but are presumed to involve specialized regions called meristems where cell division is concentrated. The possible role of cell division in influencing meristem activity and overall plant growth rate is controversial, with a prevailing view that cell division is secondary to higher order meristem controls. Here we show that a reduction in the length of the cell-cycle G1 phase and faster cell cycling occur when the rate of cell division in transgenic tobacco plants is increased by the plant D-type cyclin CycD2 (ref. 8). The plants have normal cell and meristem sizes, but elevated overall growth rates, an increased rate of leaf initiation and accelerated development in all stages from seedling to maturity. We conclude that cell division is a principal determinant of meristem activity and overall growth rate, and propose that modulation of plant growth rate is achieved through regulation of G1.     

蒲菜营养器官的解剖学研究

研究了蒲菜营养器官的形态结构。蒲菜不定根根冠、皮怃、维管柱起源于顶端分组织中各自大独立的３层原始细胞，表皮与皮层起源于共同的原始细胞，不定根具根毛，维管束为多原型。生长锥原套为２层，茎的维管束均分散在基本组织中，分为中央维管束和周围维管束，蒲叶两面均具栅栏组织，为等面叶，两表皮气孔器密度相似。     

84K杨叶片再生系统的建立

选用84K杨的叶片作为外植体,MS作为基本培养基,采用不同浓度组合的BA和NAA对84K杨再生系统进行了研究.结果表明,在MS培养基中单独添加2.0mg/L BA时,不定芽分化率为90%,单独添加0.3mg/L NAA时,不定根产生率最高(90%),但无不定芽生成.采用1.5mg/LBA 0.3mg/LNAA组合搭配时,不定芽分化率最高(95%).在此基础上,采用M1(MS 1.5mg/L BA 0.3mg/L NAA)培养基,研究了不同着生位置的叶片、同一着生位置叶片的不同切段以及叶片在培养基上的放置方式对84K杨叶片再生的影响,结果表明带有叶柄的下切段比其余叶片切段不定芽再生率高,幼嫩叶片比老化叶片再生率高,叶片近轴端向下接触培养基比远轴端向下接触培养基再生率高.叶片再生系统的建立为开展84K杨的工厂化育苗和遗传转化奠定了基础.