The symbiosis between the weaver ant,Oecophylla smaragdina,and Anthene emolus,an obligate myrmecophilous lycaenid butterfly

Females of Anthene emolus use the presence of the weaver ant, Oecophylla smaragdina, as oviposition cue. Ovipositing females are not attacked by the ants. The first instar larvae are adopted by the ants and carried into their pavilions where the caterpillars feed. Outside the pavilions the larvae cannot survive. The older larvae leave the pavilions and are carried by the ants to their feeding places or back into the pavilions. The larvae are constantly attended by the ants. During the 3rd and 4th instar the caterpillars secrete high amounts of nutritive liquids representing an estimated energy content of 200 J per larva. Thus the larvae are important trophobionts of Oe. smaragdina and attract the ants by releasing food recruitment behaviour. The pupae are not attractive for ants, but are not attacked, either. The emerging adults are not protected from ant attacks and are sometimes killed by their host ants. The costs and benefits of this close obligate myrmecophilous relationship for both the ants and lycaenids as well as the evolution of ant-specific relationships of the lycaenids are discussed.     

Myrmecophilous organs of the larvae and pupa of the lycaenid butterfly Jalmenus evagoras (Donovan)

Summary

An account if given of the larval and pupal morphology of the ant-attended lycaenid butterfly, Jalmenus evagoras Donovan, focusing on those structures specifically associated with the mutualistic interaction with ants. Scanning electron micrographs of these and associated structures are presented and interpreted. A brief account of the function of these myrmecophilous organs and their mode of action is included.     

The tortoise caterpillar: carnivory and armoured larval morphology of the metalmark butterfly Pachythone xanthe (Lepidoptera: Riodinidae)

ABSTRACT

The natural history and morphology of the later instars and pupa of the metalmark butterfly Pachythone xanthe H. Bates are described and illustrated for the first time. The caterpillars are myrmecophilous and carnivorous, feeding on scale insects (Hemiptera: Coccoidea) tended by Azteca cf. chartifex Forel (Formicidae: Dolichoderinae) ants and appear to be physically shielded from potential ant attacks by a carapace-like body that protects the head and appendages. In addition, the larvae present several types of specialised setae and ant-organs such as perforated cupola organs, glandular openings and functional tentacle nectary organs that may be related to appeasement of aggressive ant behaviour. Our results reveal the first detailed life cycle data for the Pachythonina subtribe and record a new independent origin of carnivory in Riodinidae.     

The myrmecophilous organs of larvae of the small blue,Cupido minimus (Lepidoptera; Lycaenidae)

Larvae of the lycaenid butterfly Cupido minimus have been examined using scanning electron microscopy following critical-point drying. They were found to possess both dorsal organs and pore cupolae, organs associated with myrmecophily. These results are compared with those of earlier authors and their significance discussed.     

Bionomics of the myrmecophilous oribatid mite Protoribates myrmecophilus (Acari: Oribatida) in the Oriental tropics

Behavioural interactions between the myrmecophilous oribatid mite Protoribates myrmecophilus and the host ant Myrmecina spp. are described and compared to those of Aribates javensis which shows a very specialized myrmecophily. The behaviour of P. myrmecophilous is similar to free-living oribatids: they can walk by themselves and can survive without ant attendance. In the ant nests, the mites are sometimes cared for by ants and they are brought by ants into a new nest site. Protoribates myrmecophilus is eaten by non-host species of Myrmecina. Protoribates myrmecophilus is a less specialized myrmecophilous oribatid species.     

Immature stages of the apterous fly Badisis ambulans McAlpine (Diptera: Micropezidae)

Morphology of the mature larvae and pupae of the apterous fly, Badisis ambulans McAlpine (Diptera: Micropezidae) are described and illustrated. In addition, the curious commensal habits of the larvae are described. Each spiracular plate of the mature larva is situated at the base of a small horn; similar horns have been described in other micropezid larvae. The posterior spiracles appear to be non-functional with depressions forming the vestiges of the spiracular openings. The larvae were found inside pitchers of the Albany pitcher plant, Cephalotus follicularis (Cephalotaceae) and have a commensal relationship with the plant. They feed on the decaying pitcher plant prey and leave the pitcher to pupate. It is likely that the larva obtains oxygen from the pitcher fluid. This is the first immature micropezid described from Australia.     

Setal diversity,trophic modes and functional morphology of feeding appendages of two callianassid shrimps,Callichirus major and Sergio mirim (Decapoda: Thalassinidea: Callianassidae)

In the present study we investigate the trophic behaviour, stomach content and morphology of the feeding appendages, with emphasis on setae, of two callianassids; a generalist feeder, Callichirus major (Say, 1818) and a strict deposit feeder, Sergio mirim (Rodrigues, 1971). Of the 87 setal types described, only 5% were common to both species. Setal types were clustered in four main categories; plumed, serrate, plumodenticulate and simple. Callichirus major has higher setal diversity than S. mirim. Relative to the amount of setal types present in each species, C. major has a higher ratio of serrate to plumodenticulate setal types and similar percentages of plumed and simple setae. Examining the setae and spatial position of the segments of the feeding appendages, it is possible to infer that the main function of the dactyli, propodi and basal endites is to brush particles, while the meri, ischia and coxal endites retain sediment. The setal diversity found on the feeding appendages reflected the diverse trophic strategies of the callianassid species studied. Exclusive deposit feeders, e.g. S. mirim, appear to have fewer setal types than generalist feeders, e.g. C. major. Apparently, the higher ratio of serrate to plumodenticulate setal types in Callianassidae depends more on the necessity to triturate particles prior to ingestion than on the trophic mechanism used by the species.     

The first instar larva of Aulacoscelis appendiculata n. sp. (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae: Aulacoscelinae) and its value in the placement of the Aulacoscelinae

Of all of the chrysomelid subfamilies, only the larvae of the Aulacoscelinae remain undescribed. The adults and first instar larva of Aulacoscelis appendiculata sp. n., from Panama are described, as well as the eggs. Larval characters, eggs, and oviposition behaviour are used to relatethe Aulacoscelinae with other chrysomelid subfamilies, in support of what is known to date concerning adult morphology.     

Nest structure and all stages of the long-cheeked yellow jacket Dolichovespula intermedia Birula (Hymenoptera: Vespidae)

Nest structure, morphology of all stages and behaviour have contributed to the phylogenetic and taxonomic studies of social vespids. Two aerial nests of Dolichovespula intermedia were discovered in China. The morphology of the three castes, the five larval instars, and the nest structure of D. intermedia Birula, are described in detail and illustrated. The presence of only one campaniform sensillum above each labial palp and the dense minute spicules on the posterior gena found in D. intermedia larvae are mentioned here for the first time for Dolichovespula. The identification characters between D. intermedia and Dolichovespula sylvestris are briefly discussed.     

Homichloda barkeri (Jacoby) (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae: Alticinae), a candidate agent for the biocontrol of prickly acacia,Acacia nilotica (Mimosaceae) in Australia

The status of Homichloda barkeri (Jacoby) n. comb. is discussed. A key is presented to four Afrotropical Homichloda species, including fulva n. sp. The eggs, larvae and pupae of H. barkeri are described for the first time. Unusual adult and immature stage characters are discussed in relation to the placement of Homichloda in the Alticinae.     

Immature stages of Parrhasius polibetes (Lepidoptera: Lycaenidae): host plants,tending ants,natural enemies and morphology

Natural history and immature stage morphology of the facultative myrmecophilous butterfly Parrhasius polibetes (Stoll) (Lepidoptera: Lycaenidae) are described and illustrated through both light and scanning electron microscopy. Larvae underwent four instars. At the third instar, the dorsal nectar organ became present and functional, and larvae were facultatively tended by several ant species, those also tending plants bearing extrafloral nectaries and honeydew-producing hemipterans. Larvae were florivorous and polyphagous at the species level, using at least 44 species of plants in 19 families. Most host plants (～ 89%) had some type of ant-attractive features, such as extrafloral nectaries or ant-tended treehoppers. The host range of this butterfly species allows the use of floral resources throughout the year. Food sources that promote ant visitation, flower bud morphology and phenology appear to be related to the evolution and maintenance of polyphagy in this butterfly species.     

Alipumilio (Diptera: Syrphidae) fly association with Burseraceae tree resins in the eastern Brazilian Amazon

Numerous fly (Diptera) larvae develop in plant saps or rotting exudates, but few have adapted to resin flows of trees. Among these are some primitive syrphid genera (Syrphidae), Cheilosia in the temperate region and Alipumilio in the neotropics. A recent study of resin harvest in the eastern Brazilian Amazon has revealed a potentially new species of Alipumilio that develops in resin lumps on some species of Burseraceae trees. These resin flows are primarily stimulated by larvae of a bark-boring Sternocoelus weevil (Coleoptera: Curculionidae). This fly larva's morphology, movement in the resin and unsuccessful rearing apart from fresh resin indicate it may be consuming microbial spores or sap materials coming out of tree wounds. While Sternocoelus weevils are found in resin lumps in a range of Protium and other Burseraceae species in the region, Alipumilio larvae were only found in the resin of some of these species. The study speculates that some trees do not support Alipumilio because their resin's chemical properties are inhospitable to these larvae or inhibit the micro-organisms that they feed on.     

The Australian species of Chromotydaeus Berlese and Penthaleus C. L. Koch (Acarina: Penthaleidae)

The Australian species of Chromotydaeus Berlese and Penthaleus C. L. Koch (Acarina: Penthaleidae) are revised. Chromotydaeus quartus n. sp. and Penthaleus falcatus n. sp. are described, and P. major (Dugés) and P. minor (Canestrini) redescribed. P. major is an agricultural pest, but all the other species appear to have no economic importance.     

Bionomics,behaviour and immature stages of Pelecotoma fennica (Paykull) (Coleoptera: Rhipiphoridae)

Ptilinus fuscus (Anobiidae) was confirmed as the host species of Pelecotoma fennica (Rhipiphoridae, Pelecotominae). Females of Pelecotoma oviposit into the wood infested by the host larvae. First-instar larvae are elongate, unsclerotized, very different from the triungulinid larvae known in other rhipiphorids. They search actively for the host larvae in the wood; no phoresy is involved in the life cycle. The first-instar larvae temporarily paralyse the host larva and enter its body, overwintering (some perhaps more than once) as an endoparasite. In the spring of the year of emergence, the endoparasite engorges enormously (without moulting) and develops a special sclerotized caudal structure which is then used for perforation of the host's integument. The larva undergoes a further four ectoparasitic instars. The fifth (i.e. fourth ectoparasitic) instar differs considerably from the preceding three, and is capable of boring through the wood to prepare the emergence gallery for the adult. Pupation occurs in the wood. The rate of parasitization may locally far exceed 50%. Superparasitization by the first-instar larvae is possible, but usually only 1 larva survives to the ectoparasitic stage. Larval morphology of Pelecotoma is described and illustrated. Additional data on bionomics and larval morphology are also presented for the genus Metoecus (Rhipiphorinae). Comparing the biology and larval morphology of Pelecotoma with other Rhipiphoridae, it is assumed that ancestral rhipiphorids may have been xylophilous Tenebrionoidea with predaceous or omnivorous larvae, and that the ‘triungulinid’ larvae and phoretic habits may not belong to the groundplan of the family Rhipiphoridae. The widespread opinion considering Rhipiphoridae closely related to the family Mordellidae is questioned.     

Notes on Simulium ovazzae Grenier and Mouchet (Diptera: Simuliidae) and river crabs (Malacostraca: Potamidae) and their association

Summary

Collections of crabs in the forest zone of West Cameroon produced three species—Potamonautes africanus, P. orthostylis and P. pobeguini. The P. africanus carried populations of immature Simulium ovazzae.

Analysis of crabs collected by hand and those collected in traps indicates very little overlap in the sizes of the crabs obtained by the two techniques. This problem is discussed.

The infestation rates of S. ovazzae on P. africanus were found to be highest on medium-sized crabs. The attachment sites of the S. ovazzae on the crabs were found to vary with both the size of the crab and the size of the Simulium larva.

The size distributions of S. ovazzae larvae on small crabs were found to be different from those on medium and large crabs. The characteristic deficiency of smaller larvae on medium and large crabs reported for other crab-phoretic species was also found with S. ovazzae but the smaller crabs showed a deficiency of larger larvae. A hypothesis is put forward to explain the dearth of larger larvae on the smaller crabs and the higher infestation rate on medium crabs.

S. ovazzae are shown to arrive on their hosts as single larvae carried by the current.

Six adult S. ovazzae were reared from pupae in the laboratory. Small numbers of presumed S. ovazzae biting man in Cameroon are reported.     

A new genus and new species (Orthoptera: Acrididae: Gomphocerinae) from south-east Xizang,China

In 2007, a 3-year survey was started in northeastern Italy to assess the influence of agricultural management on parasitoid composition and parasitism rates of parasitoids attacking larvae and pupae of Syrphidae (Diptera). Two types of management were considered – intensive (including wheat and maize monoculture with very low or null vegetation diversity) and extensive (with different types of habitats, characterized by a higher vegetation complexity). In habitats simplified by intensive agriculture, and particularly in maize fields, parasitism rates of syrphid larvae were higher than recorded in more diversified habitats. A substantial difference in the composition of the parasitoid complex was also found. In extensive and wheat sites, Diplazontinae (Braconidae), highly specialized to Syrphidae, were the dominant parasitoids, whereas in maize fields Pachyneuron (Pteromalidae) species, known as generalists, accounted for more than 80% of total parasitoids. In the habitats where Pachyneuron spp. were dominant, parasitism rates were very high. Conversely, in habitats where Diplazontinae were more abundant, the parasitism rates were very low. The higher rate of parasitism of syrphid larvae and pupae recorded in intensive monocultures could have a large impact on the development and control of aphid populations in such crops.