Spatial scaling laws yield a synthetic theory of biodiversity.

Ecologists still search for common principles that predict well-known responses of biological diversity to different factors. Such factors include the number of available niches in space, productivity, area, species' body size and habitat fragmentation. Here we show that all these patterns can arise from simple constraints on how organisms acquire resources in space. We use spatial scaling laws to describe how species of different sizes find food in patches of varying size and resource concentration. We then derive a mathematical rule for the minimum similarity in size of species that share these resources. This packing rule yields a theory of species diversity that predicts relations between diversity and productivity more effectively than previous models. Size and diversity patterns for locally coexisting East African grazing mammals and North American savanna plants strongly support these predictions. The theory also predicts relations between diversity and area and between diversity and habitat fragmentation. Thus, spatial scaling laws provide potentially unifying first principles that may explain many important patterns of species diversity.     

斑块开度对树木结实和交配格局的影响：以城市油松（Pinus tabulaeformis）种群为例

以城市种植油松斑块为例,探讨了斑块开度(作为林冠开度指标)对油松交配格局和结实的影响,发现斑块开度和油松自交率呈显著正相关,并与个体结实量具有一定的相关性.其原因可能是由于斑块开度增大导致自交种子败育率下降,或者是由于孤立木接收外源花粉相对较少.另外,本研究未发现斑块开度对花粉迁入有显著影响.     

阿利效应及其对生物入侵和自然保护中小种群管理的启示

目前人类活动导致的生境破碎化，对生物多样性有着极大威胁. 生境破碎化后出现许多小种群，小种群很容易受到阿利效应的影响而加速灭绝；外来物种在其入侵过程中也存在着阿利效应，阿利效应对生物入侵的影响已引起国际生态学界的关注. 介绍了阿利效应的定义、作用方式及影响因素. 通过对相关案例的分析，得出外来物种在入侵初期会因为繁殖困难、密度低或周围环境等原因存在阿利效应；阿利效应影响物种的入侵速度、入侵策略和在入侵地区的生存. 由于阿利效应的影响，濒危物种可能因为种群大小处于临界点以下而趋于灭绝. 针对这些情况总结了阿利效应对入侵物种防治和濒危物种保护中小种群管理的启示.     

Ecosystem size determines food-chain length in lakes

Food-chain length is an important characteristic of ecological communities: it influences community structure, ecosystem functions and contaminant concentrations in top predators. Since Elton first noted that food-chain length was variable among natural systems, ecologists have considered many explanatory hypotheses, but few are supported by empirical evidence. Here we test three hypotheses that predict food-chain length to be determined by productivity alone (productivity hypothesis), ecosystem size alone (ecosystem-size hypothesis) or a combination of productivity and ecosystem size (productive-space hypothesis). The productivity and productive-space hypotheses propose that food-chain length should increase with increasing resource availability; however, the productivity hypothesis does not include ecosystem size as a determinant of resource availability. The ecosystem-size hypothesis is based on the relationship between ecosystem size and species diversity, habitat availability and habitat heterogeneity. We find that food-chain length increases with ecosystem size, but that the length of the food chain is not related to productivity. Our results support the hypothesis that ecosystem size, and not resource availability, determines food-chain length in these natural ecosystems.     

Quantification of modelling uncertainties in a large ensemble of climate change simulations

Comprehensive global climate models are the only tools that account for the complex set of processes which will determine future climate change at both a global and regional level. Planners are typically faced with a wide range of predicted changes from different models of unknown relative quality, owing to large but unquantified uncertainties in the modelling process. Here we report a systematic attempt to determine the range of climate changes consistent with these uncertainties, based on a 53-member ensemble of model versions constructed by varying model parameters. We estimate a probability density function for the sensitivity of climate to a doubling of atmospheric carbon dioxide levels, and obtain a 5-95 per cent probability range of 2.4-5.4 degrees C. Our probability density function is constrained by objective estimates of the relative reliability of different model versions, the choice of model parameters that are varied and their uncertainty ranges, specified on the basis of expert advice. Our ensemble produces a range of regional changes much wider than indicated by traditional methods based on scaling the response patterns of an individual simulation.     

分散种植模式下杂交杏李园节肢动物的种群动态研究

分散种植是我国传统的农业种植模式,但由此产生的生境丧失与破碎化是农业生态系统中自然天敌对害虫控制能力下降的重要因素.本文以农村分散种植的39户杂交杏李果园为研究斑块,利用网捕法、巴氏罐诱集等方法,研究了新建杂交杏李园中节肢动物种群的构建、扩散和转移.结果表明,随着树龄的增长,果园节肢动物逐步占据种植斑块.不同种群占据所有斑块所需的时间长短不一,种群密度逐渐增长,杂交杏李在种植后的8年种群密度趋于稳定,具有明显的时滞期、扩散期和饱和期.农户分散种植和耕作方式的改变会产生明显的斑块效应和隔离效应,从而影响果园自然天敌及害虫种群.因此利用农业景观格局进行以害虫生物防治为中心的设计与规划有着巨大的前景.     

Effects of size and temperature on developmental time

Body size and temperature are the two most important variables affecting nearly all biological rates and times. The relationship of size and temperature to development is of particular interest, because during ontogeny size changes and temperature often varies. Here we derive a general model, based on first principles of allometry and biochemical kinetics, that predicts the time of ontogenetic development as a function of body mass and temperature. The model fits embryonic development times spanning a wide range of egg sizes and incubation temperatures for birds and aquatic ectotherms (fish, amphibians, aquatic insects and zooplankton). The model also describes nearly 75% of the variation in post-embryonic development among a diverse sample of zooplankton. The remaining variation is partially explained by stoichiometry, specifically the whole-body carbon to phosphorus ratio. Development in other animals at other life stages is also described by this model. These results suggest a general definition of biological time that is approximately invariant and common to all organisms.     

Size and form in efficient transportation networks.

Many biological processes, from cellular metabolism to population dynamics, are characterized by allometric scaling (power-law) relationships between size and rate. An outstanding question is whether typical allometric scaling relationships--the power-law dependence of a biological rate on body mass--can be understood by considering the general features of branching networks serving a particular volume. Distributed networks in nature stem from the need for effective connectivity, and occur both in biological systems such as cardiovascular and respiratory networks and plant vascular and root systems, and in inanimate systems such as the drainage network of river basins. Here we derive a general relationship between size and flow rates in arbitrary networks with local connectivity. Our theory accounts in a general way for the quarter-power allometric scaling of living organisms, recently derived under specific assumptions for particular network geometries. It also predicts scaling relations applicable to all efficient transportation networks, which we verify from observational data on the river drainage basins. Allometric scaling is therefore shown to originate from the general features of networks irrespective of dynamical or geometric assumptions.     

Effects of household dynamics on resource consumption and biodiversity

Human population size and growth rate are often considered important drivers of biodiversity loss, whereas household dynamics are usually neglected. Aggregate demographic statistics may mask substantial changes in the size and number of households, and their effects on biodiversity. Household dynamics influence per capita consumption and thus biodiversity through, for example, consumption of wood for fuel, habitat alteration for home building and associated activities, and greenhouse gas emissions. Here we report that growth in household numbers globally, and particularly in countries with biodiversity hotspots (areas rich in endemic species and threatened by human activities), was more rapid than aggregate population growth between 1985 and 2000. Even when population size declined, the number of households increased substantially. Had the average household size (that is, the number of occupants) remained static, there would have been 155 million fewer households in hotspot countries in 2000. Reduction in average household size alone will add a projected 233 million additional households to hotspot countries during the period 2000-15. Rapid increase in household numbers, often manifested as urban sprawl, and resultant higher per capita resource consumption in smaller households pose serious challenges to biodiversity conservation.     

一种网格计算环境下WDM网路由和波长分配算法

波长路由光网络为网格计算动态提供端到端的专用光路,以满足网格计算应用的数据密集性,提前预留是网格计算中一种重要资源占用形式。目前波长路由光网络的提前预留研究多是关注用户请求的弹性调度,以缓解资源碎片影响。从路由和波长分配(RWA)算法缓解资源碎片影响的角度,分析了提前预留中RWA算法的特殊性,在已有路由和波长分配问题上增加了时间向量因素;并提出了最少资源碎片聚集(L-RFC)算法,引入了时间向量上的资源碎片影响因子作为波长分配权衡因素,将资源碎片影响分散在不同波长上。仿真证明,该算法即降低了阻塞率和资源碎片率,又提高了资源利用率,性能明显优于已有的RWA算法。     

一种网格计算环境下WDM网路由和波长分配算法

波长路由光网络为网格计算动态提供端到端的专用光路，以满足网格计算应用的数据密集性，提前预留是 网格计算中一种重要资源占用形式。目前波长路由光网络的提前预留研究多是关注用户请求的弹性调度，以缓解 资源碎片影响。从路由和波长分配（RWA）算法缓解资源碎片影响的角度，分析了提前预留中RWA算法的特殊 性，在已有路由和波长分配问题上增加了时间向量因素，并提出了最少资源碎片聚集（L-RFC）算法，引入了时间向 量上的资源碎片影响因子作为波长分配权衡因素，将资源碎片影响分散在不同波长上。仿真证明，该算法即降低 了阻塞     

温度对森林生长速率和生物量异速生长关系的影响

为了验证温度对植物生长速率-个体生物量之间的异速生长关系的影响,分析了年平均温度在-6.6～25.2℃的中国森林数据并按照生境温度的不同划分为13个温度分组.结果表明：在忽略温度影响的条件下,10个温度分组的生长速率与个体生物量之间的异速生长指数的95%置信区间包括WBE模型预测值3/4,且该指数随年平均温度的升高而增大.在考虑温度影响的条件下,玻尔兹曼因子能够显著增加生长速率-个体生物量之间的相关性,但并不改变生长速率-个体生物量之间的异速生长指数.因此,温度对植物的生长速率-个体生物量之间的异速生长关系具有重要影响,未来对大尺度植物生长速率的异速生长的研究应当充分考虑温度的影响.     

生态位构建通过修复破坏生境对集合种群动态的影响

基于具有生境破碎作用下的集合种群模型，建立了存均匀场假设下的微分方程模型，充分探讨了具有生态位构建效应的有机体活动对破碎斑块修复产生的生态结果．通过稳定性分析与元胞自动机方法模拟表明：集合种群的续存条件不仪依赖于侵占力与灭绝率之间的平衡，而且也包括集合种群的生态位构建能力与生境自然消耗率之间的平衡；当灭绝率大于侵占率时，集合种群也可以在低水平上续存，并且在该过程中集合种群依赖于两个阈值条件，分别是生态位构建能力和集合种群的初始状态．集合种群的大小与其生态位构建能力成正比，即构建能力强者，集合种群数量相应增加．因此，对环境具有较强的正效应的有机体或种群在维护牛境的有效性中起重要作用．     

Rapid responses of British butterflies to opposing forces of climate and habitat change.

Habitat degradation and climate change are thought to be altering the distributions and abundances of animals and plants throughout the world, but their combined impacts have not been assessed for any species assemblage. Here we evaluated changes in the distribution sizes and abundances of 46 species of butterflies that approach their northern climatic range margins in Britain-where changes in climate and habitat are opposing forces. These insects might be expected to have responded positively to climate warming over the past 30 years, yet three-quarters of them declined: negative responses to habitat loss have outweighed positive responses to climate warming. Half of the species that were mobile and habitat generalists increased their distribution sites over this period (consistent with a climate explanation), whereas the other generalists and 89% of the habitat specialists declined in distribution size (consistent with habitat limitation). Changes in population abundances closely matched changes in distributions. The dual forces of habitat modification and climate change are likely to cause specialists to decline, leaving biological communities with reduced numbers of species and dominated by mobile and widespread habitat generalists.     

Species diversity enhances ecosystem functioning through interspecific facilitation.

Facilitation between species is thought to be a key mechanism by which biodiversity affects the rates of resource use that govern the efficiency and productivity of ecosystems; however, there is no direct empirical evidence to support this hypothesis. Here we show that increasing the species diversity of a functional group of aquatic organisms induces facilitative interactions, leading to non-additive changes in resource consumption. We increased the richness and evenness of suspension-feeding caddisfly larvae (Insecta, Trichoptera) in stream mesocosms and found that the increased topographical complexity of the benthic habitat alters patterns of near-bed flow such that the feeding success of individuals is enhanced. Species diversity reduces 'current shading' (that is, the deceleration of flow from upstream to downstream neighbours), allowing diverse assemblages to capture a greater fraction of suspended resources than is caught by any species monoculture. The fundamental nature of this form of hydrodynamic facilitation suggests that it is broadly applicable to freshwater and marine habitats; in addition, it has several analogues in terrestrial ecosystems where fluxes of energy and matter can be influenced by biophysical complexity. Thus, changes in species diversity may alter the probability of positive species interactions, resulting in disproportionately large changes in the functioning of ecosystems.     

Universal scaling of respiratory metabolism, size and nitrogen in plants

The scaling of respiratory metabolism to body size in animals is considered to be a fundamental law of nature, and there is substantial evidence for an approximate (3/4)-power relation. Studies suggest that plant respiratory metabolism also scales as the (3/4)-power of mass, and that higher plant and animal scaling follow similar rules owing to the predominance of fractal-like transport networks and associated allometric scaling. Here, however, using data obtained from about 500 laboratory and field-grown plants from 43 species and four experiments, we show that whole-plant respiration rate scales approximately isometrically (scaling exponent approximately 1) with total plant mass in individual experiments and has no common relation across all data. Moreover, consistent with theories about biochemically based physiological scaling, isometric scaling of whole-plant respiration rate to total nitrogen content is observed within and across all data sets, with a single relation common to all data. This isometric scaling is unaffected by growth conditions including variation in light, nitrogen availability, temperature and atmospheric CO2 concentration, and is similar within or among species or functional groups. These findings suggest that plants and animals follow different metabolic scaling relations, driven by distinct mechanisms.     

长江四大家鱼产卵场栖息地适宜度模拟

在四大家鱼栖息地适宜度方程的基础上,结合一维水动力学模型,建立四大家鱼栖息地适宜度模型,模拟和预测不同河流水文情景下,家鱼产卵场的适宜程度.耦合描述四大家鱼对栖息地选择特性的适宜度方程和一维分汇流数学模型,建立了四大家鱼栖息地适宜度模型.利用实测资料对模型进行了验证,结果表明模型合理,能够用来模拟和预测不同水文条件下家鱼的栖息地适宜度.模型对宜昌至城陵矶河段不同水文条件作用下四大家鱼产卵场的栖息地适合程度进行了预测,计算结果对维持稳定的家鱼产卵场的水利工程优化调度有一定的参考价值.     

云南独龙江地区种子植物物种多样性垂直分布格局和Rapoport法则的验证

物种丰富度沿海拔梯度的分布格局是生物多样性研究的热点之一。以独龙江地区种子植物为对象,利用当地植物志资料,结合数字高程模型(DEM)数据,研究了独龙江地区种子植物物种多样性的垂直分布格局,并对Rapoport法则进行了验证。结果表明：随着海拔的升高,物种丰富度和物种密度均呈线性下降趋势,而物种分布幅度呈明显增大趋势,与Rapoport法则一致;进一步分析表明,物种密度随着物种分布幅度的增大而下降;随着年平均温度的升高,物种密度呈明显上升趋势,而物种分布幅度呈减小趋势。