Destruction geodynamics of the North China craton and its Paleoproterozoic plate tectonics

Much attention has been paid in the last two decades to the physical and chemical processes as well as temporal-spatial variations of the lithospheric mantle beneath the North China Craton. In order to provide insights into the geodynamics of this variation, it is necessary to thoroughly study the state and structure of the lithospheric crust and mantle of the North China Craton and its adjacent regions as an integrated unit. Based on the velocity structure of the crust and upper mantle constrained from seismological studies, this paper presents various available geophysical results regarding the lithosphere thickness, the nature of crust-mantle boundary, the upper mantle structure and deformation characteristics as well as their tectonic features and evolution systematics. Combined with the obtained data from petrology and geochemistry, a mantle flow model is proposed for the tectonic evolution of the North China Craton during the Mesozoic-Cenozoic. We suggest that subduction of the Pacific plate made the mantle underneath the eastern Asian continent unstable and able to flow faster. Such a regional mantle flow system would cause an elevation of melt/fluid content in the upper mantle of the North China Craton and the lithospheric softening, which, subsequently resulted in destruction of the North China Craton in different ways of delamination and thermal erosion in Yanshan, Taihang Mountains and the Tan-Lu Fault zone. Multiple lines of evidence recorded in the crust of the North China Craton, such as the amalgamation of the Archean eastern and western blocks, the subduction of Paleo-oceanic crust and Paleo-continental residue, indicate that the Earth in the Paleoproterozoic had already evolved into the plate tectonic system similar to the present plate tectonics.     

Comparison of mantle-derived matierals from different spatiotemporal settings: Implications for destructive and accretional processes of the North China Craton

Cratonic destruction or lithospheric thinning beneath North China makes it as one of the most ideal areas for the studying on the formation and evolution of continent. However, the mechanism, time, range and dynamic setting of the destruction, even the lithospheric status before the destruction, are contentious. The comparison among mantle xenoliths in the volcanic rocks from different captured times （e.g. Paleozoic, Mesozoic and Cenozoic） and locations （e.g. intra-plate or its rim, the translithospheric Tanlu fault or the North-South Gravity Line）, and peridotitic massifs within the Sulu-Dabie ultrahigh-pressure metamorphism belt along the southern margin of the North China Craton, indicates that （1） the cratonic lithosphere is heterogeneous in structure and composition, and contains mantle weak zones; and （2） the Mesozoic-Cenozoic lithospheric thinning process is complex, including lateral spreading of lithosphere, interaction between melt and peridotite, non-even asthenospheric erosion （huge lithospheric thinning）, and the limited lithospheric accretion and thus thickening, which resulted in the final replacement of the refractory cratonic lithosphere by juvenile fertile mantle. In early Mesozoic, the integrity of the North China Craton was interrupted, even destroyed by subduction and collision of the Yangtze block. The mantle wedge of the North China Craton was also metasomatized and modified by melt/fluids revealed from the subducted Yangtze continent. Lithospheric mantle extension and tectonic intrusion of the North China Craton also occurred, accompanied by the asthenospheric upwelling that due to the detachement of the subducted Yangtze continent （orogenic root）. During early Cretaceous-early Tertiary, the huge thinning of lithosphere was triggered by the upwelling asthenosphere due to the subduction of the Pacific plate. Since late Tertiary, the cooling of the upwelling asthenosphere resulted in the replacement of the mantle in existence by the newly accreted lithosphere, accompanied with a little thickness in lithosphere and thus finally achieved the lithospheric thinning as a whole. The translithospheric faults, such as the Tanlu fault, play excellent channels for asthenospheric upwelling. Meanwhile, the channels in lithosphere are usually irregular, which resulted in different eruption times of magma. Peridotite xenolith in the basalts erupted at 100 Ma is mainly fertile, indicating such a fact, that is, the mantle replacement occurred before the eruption （e.g. 125--100 Ma） beneath the eastern part of the North China Craton.     

Peridotite-melt interaction: A key point for the destruction of cratonic lithospheric mantle

This paper presents an overview of recent studies dealing with different ages of mantle peridotitic xenoliths and xenocrysts from the North China Craton, with aim to provide new ideas for further study on the destruction of the North China Craton. Re-Os isotopic studies suggest that the lithospheric mantle of the North China Craton is of Archean age prior to its thinning. The key reason why such a low density and highly refractory Archean lithospheric mantle would be thinned is changes in composition, thermal regime, and physical properties of the lithospheric mantle due to interaction of peridotites with melts of different origins. Inward subduction of circum craton plates and collision with the North China Craton provided not only the driving force for the destruction of the craton, but also continuous melts derived from partial melting of subducted continental or oceanic crustal materials that resulted in the compositional change of the lithospheric mantle. Regional thermal anomaly at ca. 120 Ma led to the melting of highly modified lithospheric mantle. At the same time or subsequently lithospheric extension and asthenospheric upwelling further reinforced the melting and thinning of the lithospheric mantle. Therefore, the destruction and thinning of the North China Craton is a combined result of per- idotite-melt interaction （addition of volatile）, enhanced regional thermal anomaly （temperature increase） and lithospheric extension （decompression）. Such a complex geological process finally produced a ＂mixed＂ lithospheric mantle of highly chemical heterogeneity during the Mesozoic and Cenozoic. It also resulted in significant difference in the composition of mantle peridotitic xenoliths between different regions and times.     

Uppermost mantle structure of the North China Craton: Constraints from interstation Pn travel time difference tomography

The uppermost mantle is the key area for exchange of heat flux and material convection between the crust and lithospheric mantle. Spatial variations of lithospheric thinning and dynamic processes in the North China Craton could inevitably induce the velocity heterogeneity in the uppermost mantle. In this study, we used Pn arrivals from permanent seismic stations in North China and surrounding regions to construct a tomographic image of the North China Craton. The tomographic method with Pn travel time difference data were used to study the velocity variations in the uppermost mantle. Pn velocities in the uppermost mantle varied significantly in the Eastern, Central and Western blocks of the North China Craton. This suggests that the lithosphere beneath different blocks of the North China Craton have experienced distinct tectonic evolutions and dynamic processes since the Paleozoic. The current uppermost mantle has been imprinted by these tectonic and dynamic processes. Fast Pn velocities are prominent beneath the Bohai Bay Basin in the Eastern Block of the North China Craton, suggesting residuals of the Archean lithospheric mantle. Beneath the Tanlu Fault Zone and Bohai Sea, slow Pn velocities are present in the uppermost mantle, which can be attributed to significant lithospheric thinning and asthenospheric upwelling. The newly formed lithospheric mantle beneath Yanshan Mountain may be the dominant reason for the existence of slow Pn velocities in this region. Conversely, the ancient lower crust and lithospheric mantle already have been delaminated. In the Central Block, significant slow Pn velocities are present in Taihangshan Mountain, which also extends northward to the Yinchuan-Hetao Rift on the northern margin of the Ordos Block and Yinshan Orogen. This characteristic probably is a result of hot asthenospheric upwelling along the active tectonic boundary on the margin of the Western Block. The protracted thermal erosion and underplating of hot asthenospheric upwelling may induce lithospheric thinning and significant slow velocities in the uppermost mantle. Fast velocities beneath the Western Block suggest that the thick, cold and refractory Archean lithospheric keel of craton still is retained without apparent destruction.     

内蒙古四子王旗早白垩世深源捕虏体的发现及意义

内蒙古四子王旗地区地处华北板块北缘,与西伯利亚板块的接合部,其早白垩世橄榄玄武岩中发现大量下地壳麻粒岩捕虏体,并可见辉石、长石捕虏晶。寄主岩石K-Ar同位素年龄在108.6～128.4 Ma之间。四子王旗地区下地壳捕虏体的发现对研究华北板块北缘中生代构造格局转化过程中深部壳幔的相互作用及物质成分的演变具有重要意义,为华北板块中生代末岩石圈拆沉事件提供了证据。     

On the timing and duration of the destruction of the North China Craton

The timing and duration of the destruction of the North China Craton, which is pivotal to understanding the destruction mechanism and its geodynamic controlling factors, still remain controversial. On the basis of the principles of magma genesis and evolution, first we outline magmatic expressions that can be related to cratonic destruction, then use magmatic and basin evolution trends to constrain the timescale of the lithospheric thinning in North China. The main conclusions include： （1） the thinning of the lithosphere beneath the North China Craton might have started, at least locally, since late Carboniferous-late Triassic, attained its climax during the late Jurassic-early Cretaceous, and continued till the end of late Cretaceous-early Cenozoic. The destruction of the North China Craton was a relatively slow, rather than a dramatic process. （2） The weakened lithospheric zones along the margins and interiors of the craton played an important role in cratonic destruction, partly accounting for the heterogeneous pattern of cratonic destruction. （3） The tectonic factors that controlled the destruction of the North China Craton may be multiple. The late Carboniferous southward subduction of the Paleo-Asian plate and the late Triassic collision between North China and South China may have re-activated the craton by influencing the thermal and integral structure of the craton. The Pacific subduction underneath the eastern Asian continent played a determinant role in the cratonic destruction, governing the distribution patterns of post-Mesozoic basins and major tectonic configuration, temporal change of magmatism and formation of the North-South gravity lineament.     

SHRIMP U-Pb zircon age of the youngest exposed pluton in eastern China

Analysis using the Sensitive High Resolution Ion Microprobe (SHRIMP) shows that the Yongsheng pluton, located to the south of Huadian County, Jilin Province, in the North China Craton, has a zircon U-Pb isotopic emplacement age of (31.6±1.3) Ma. It is therefore the youngest exposed pluton so far recognized in eastern China. Although geochemical data indicate intensive crystal fractionation, the Sr-Nd isotopic features suggest that the magmatic source region of the lithospheric mantle was weakly depleted. This implies that the previous enriched lithospheric mantle had been replaced by juvenile asthenospheric mantle before or during the Palaeogene. This recognition has great significance for future work on the Mesozoic-Cenozoic geological evolution and deep geological processes in eastern China.     

Variations in carbon isotopic composition in the subcontinental lithospheric mantle beneath the Yangtze and North China Cratons: Evidence from in-situ analysis of diamonds using SIMS

The components and evolution of subcontinental lithospheric mantle beneath the North China Craton and the Yangtze Craton is a current topic in the geological study of China and the carbon isotopic composition of diamond is one of the most direct probes into cratonic lithospheric mantle processes.In this paper,in-situ SIMS(Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometry) techniques were used to analyze the carbon isotope compositions at different internal growth zones of diamonds from Shandong and Liaoning in the North China Craton and Hunan in the Yangtze Craton.It was found that the carbon isotopic range of diamonds from the North China Craton are rather distinct from those of the Yangtze Craton;the former has a range of 6.0‰ to 2.0‰(relative to VPDB) with an average value of 3.0‰ in their core areas,which is consistent with global peridotitic diamonds;the diamonds from the Yangtze Craton,however,have a carbon isotopic range from 8.6‰ to 3.0‰ with an average value of 7.4‰ in their core areas,being more consistent with global eclogitic diamonds.The variations of carbon isotope ratios between different internal growth zones in individual diamonds were different in the three diamond localities studied.There was a clear correlation between changes in carbon isotopic composition and phases of diamond dissolution and new growth,while no correlation was observed between δ13C and internal inclusions.The variations suggest that the carbon isotopic compositions of mantle fluids were changing during the process of diamond crystallization,and that the heterogeneity of the carbon isotopic composition in mantle carbon reservoirs was a more important factor than carbon isotope fractionation in controlling the carbon isotopic compositions and their variation in diamonds.In addition,the preliminary results of in-situ nitrogen analyses demonstrated that the variation of carbon isotopic compositions between the core and outer growth zones does not correlate with nitrogen abundances,implying either that diamonds crystallized in an open environment or that the carbon isotopic composition and nitrogen contents in mantle fluids were controlled by other,not yet understood factors.The experimental results provide hints that the isotopic composition of carbon and its original sources were different in metasomatic fluids controlling diamond formation in the mantle beneath the North China Craton and the Yangtze Craton.     

SHRIMP ages of detrital zircons from the Changcheng System in the Ming Tombs area, Beijing： Constraints on the protolith nature and maximum depositional age of the Mesoproterozoic cover of the North China Craton

The Mesoproterozoic Changcheng System is widely distributed in the North China Craton. Determining its time of deposition and sources is important to understand the Precambrian crustal evolution of the North China Craton. This paper suggests age distribution patterns for detrital zircons from clastic sediments of the Changcheng System in the Ming Tombs area, Beijing. Samples of feldspar-bearing sandstone (CHc-2) and pure sandstone (CHc-9) were collected from the Changzhougou Formation, which constitutes the basal part of the Changcheng System. Detrital zircons show an age range from 2.35 to 2.60 Ga. However, sample CHc-9 in the upper Changzhougou Formation also contains some zircons with ages of 1.9-1.8 Ga and 2.3-2.1 Ga. The age patterns lead to the following conclusions: (1) Most of the detrital material came from a source area composed predominantly of -2.5 Ga continental crust of the North China Craton; (2) 1.9--1.8 Ga reflects the age record of Palaeoproterozoic continent-continent collisional event in the North China Craton; and (3) the oldest age for deposition of the Changcheng System is 1.8 Ga.     

Glass melt inclusion in clinopyroxene from Linqu Cenozoic basalt, Shandong Province, China

Melt inclusions or glasses usually occur in spinel- facies peridotitic xenoliths entrained in the global ba- salts[1―4], and olivine phenocrysts and/or xenocrysts carried in the intermediate-mafic volcanic rocks (such as basalts, basaltic andesites and h…     

Zircon U-Pb SHRIMP dating for the volcanic rocks of the Xiong’er Group: Constraints on the initial formation age of the cover of the North China Craton

The volcanic rocks of the Xiong‘er Group occur widely in the southern part of the North China Craton, which mark the beginning of the cover in the southern part of the North China Craton. The age of the volcanic rocks is thus crucial to understand the tectonic regime and evolutionary history of the North China Craton in the Proterozoic age. Zircons from five volcanic rocks and intrusions were dated by U-Pb SHRIMP method. The results indicate that the Xiong‘er Group formed in 1.80--1.75 Ga of Paleo-Proterozoic. Since the Xiong‘er Group formed earlier than the Changcheng System, the earliest rocks in the Changcheng System is therefore assumed to be formed in 1.75 Ga. A thermal-tectonic event of ca. 1.84 Ga is indicated by new zircon U-Pb SHRIMP ages in the southern part of the North China Craton. The volcanic rocks of the Xiong‘er Group thus represent the initial magmatism of the Paleo-Proterozoic breakup of the North China Craton. Numerous inherited zircons in the volcanic rocks mainly formed in ～2.20 Ga, indicating that the source magma of the volcanic rocks may be derived from the ～2.20 Ga crust, or from a mantle magma with significant contamination of the ～2.20 Ga crust.     

Trace element characteristics in the diopsides of peridotite xenoliths: a laser ablation-inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry study

Among the various xenoliths entrained by the Cenozoic Hannuoba basalts, peridotite is the most abundant one. The trace elements of the diopsides from the peridotite xenoliths were analysed by LA-ICP-MS. The overall depletion and some heterogeneity of the continental mantle beneath northern North China Craton were indicated by the characteristics of the trace elements. The ∑REE amount in diopside correlates with the Cr/(Cr+Al) ratio of diopside which is indicative of xenolith's partial melting degree. As the peridotite hosts and pyroxenite veins show similar REE distribution patterns, the composite xenoliths are probably formed by mantle deformation, rather than by the late metasomatism of mantle fluids/melts.     

Discovery of dunite and pyroxenite xenoliths in Mesozoic diorite at Jinling,western Shandong and its significance

Abundant deeply-derived xenoUths are discovered in a Mesozoic diorite at Jinling, Zibo, western Shandong, which mainly consist of dunite and pyroxenite. The dunite can be further subdivided into two subtypes. The first type shows tabular texture and high Mg^# values (93—94) in olivines. The second type is characterized by the metamorphic-deformation texture superimposed by later metasomatism and relatively low olivine Mg^# values (86--87). The mineral chemical data indicate that the former could be derived from ancient lithospheric mantle and the latter could have resulted from silica-rich melt metasomatism. The exsolution texture and the high Mg^# value in clinopyroxenes, together with the rather high equilibrium temperature, imply that the pyroxenite xenoliths could be the cumulates of mantle-derived magma in the uppermost mantle or near the crust-mantle boundary in the Mesozoic.     

Mantle olivine xenocrysts entrained in Mesozoic basalts from the North China craton：Implication for replacement process of lithospheric mantle

Mesozoic (125 Ma) Fangcheng basalts fromShandong Province contain clearly zoned olivines that arerare in terrestrial samples and provide first evidence for thereplacement of lithospheric mantle from high-Mg peridotitesto Iow-Mg peridotites through peridotite-melt reaction.Zoned olivines have compositions in the core (Mg# = 87.2--90.7) similar to those olivines from the mantle peridotiticxenoliths entrained in Cenozoic basalts from the NorthChina craton and in the rim (Mg# = 76.8--83.9) close to oli-vine phenocrysts of the host basalts (75.7--79.0). Thesecompositional features as well as rounded crystal shapes andsmaller grain sizes (300—800 μm) demonstrate that thesezoned olivines are mantle xenocrysts, i.e. disaggregates ofmantle peridotites. Their core compositions can representthose of olivines of mantle peridotites. The zoned texture ofolivines was formed through rapid reaction between the oli-vine xenocryst and the host basalt. This olivine-basaltic meltreaction could have been ubiquitous in the Mesozoic litho-spheric mantle beneath the North China craton, i.e. an im-portant type of the replacement of lithospheric mantle. Thereaction resulted in the transformation of the Paleozoic re-fractory (high-Mg) peridotites to the late Mesozoic fertile(Iow-Mg) and radiogenic isotope-enriched peridotites, lead-ing to the loss of old lithospheric mantle.     

Geochemical characteristics and petrogenesis of Mesozoic basalts from the North China Craton： A case study in Fuxin, Liaoning Province

Occurrence of Cretaceous basalts in Fuxin County, Liaoning Province provides us an opportunity to understand Mesozoic mantle processes beneath the northern margin of the North China Craton (NNCC). Fuxin Jianguo basalts occur as volcanic channel phases with well-developed columnar jointings and contain few spinel lherzolite and pyroxenite xenoliths. They are poor in silica and rich in alkalis, Ti and Al, belonging to alkaline basalts. In trace element compositions, Jianguo basalts are moderately enriched in LREE and LILE, but not depleted in HFSE. They have low Sr and high Nd and Pb isotopic ratios. These geochemical characteristics suggest that Jianguo basalts originated from the depleted asthenosphere, representing an undifferentiated and uncontaminated primitive magma. Presence of these basalts indicates that the lithosphere beneath the region had thickness less than 65 km at the time of basalt eruption and was mainly composed of fertile pargasite-bearing spinel Iherzolite and plagioclase pyroxenite. The voluminous basaltic-andesitic magmatism during the early Jurassic-late Cretaceous time indicates that the commencement and accomplishment of lithosphere thinning in the NNCC was much earlier than that in the southern margin, since the mafic-intermediate volcanism only occurred at the Cretaceous time in the southern margin and the basalts with an asthenosphere isotopic signature at the Tertiary. This shows that highly spatial and temporal heterogeneity existed in the Mesozoic lithosphere evolution.     

SHRIMP U-Pb zircon dating for lamprophyre from Liaodong Peninsula： Constraints on the initial time of Mesozoic lithosphere thinning beneath eastern China

It is undebated fact that the lithospheric mantle beneath eastern China was considerably thinned during the Mesozoic time. However, it has no adequate evidence for the exact timing when the lithosphere thinning started. The Liaodong Peninsula is located in the eastern segment of the North China Craton and is one of the important domains to explore the event of lithosphere thinning. SHRIMP U-Pb zircon dating and geochemical study were carried out for the lamprophyre dike swarm that intruded into the magnesite ore-beds in the Dashiqiao Formation of Paleoproterozoic Liaohe Group at the Huaziyu magnesite ore district, Liaodong Peninsula. The results indicate that these lamprophyre dikes were intruded in late Jurassic （155±4 Ma） and show some geochemical characteristics of potassic magmas. It is now accepted that the lithosphere thinning took place in the late Mesozoic, and the peak thinning stage occurred in early Cretaceous （130-120 Ma）. Considering the potassic mafic magmatism marking the onset of the lithospheric thinning, we therefore suggest that the studied late Jurassic potassic lamprophyre dike swarm could imply that the late Jurassic is the time that lithosphere thinning started.     

Zircon SHRIMP U-Pb dating for gabbro at Chaotiehe in the Haicheng area, eastern Liaoning

Chaotiehe gabbroic intrusion in the eastern part of Liaoning Province was dated by the zircon SHRIMP U-Pb technique. The results gave an emplacement age of 126±4 Ma, indicating that the intrusion thus formed during the lithospheric thinning of the North China Craton (NCC) in the Early Cretaceous rather than in a rifting setting during the Paleoproterozoic as previously thought. The gabbroic intrusion contains abundant old zircons with Paleoproterozoic (2.10–2.46 Ga and ca. 1.87 Ga) and Neoproterozoic (747–969 Ma) ages. The Paleoproterozoic zircons were probably derived from NCC itself, whereas the Neoproterozoic ones were likely from materials of the Yangtze Craton that had previously been subducted beneath NCC. These geochronological dates are of important implications for understanding the Mesozoic crustal evolution of NCC.     

Water content in the early Cretaceous lithospheric mantle beneath the south-central Taihang Mountains: implications for the destruction of the North China Craton

Based on studies of the water content of the early Cretaceous Feixian high-magnesium basalts in the eastern part of the North China Craton （NCC）, it has been suggested that the early Cretaceous lithospheric mantle of the eastern NCC was highly hydrous （〉1,000 ppm, HeO wt.） and that this high water content had significantly reduced the vis- cosity of the lithospheric mantle and provided a prerequisite for the destruction of the NCC. The eastern part of the NCC had undergone multistage subduction of oceanic plates from the south, north, and east sides since the early Paleozoic, and these events may have caused the strong hydration of the NCC lithospheric mantle. To determine which subduction had contributed most to this hydration, we measured the water contents of the peridotite xenoliths hosted by the early Cretaceous high-magnesium diorites of Fushan in the south- central part of the Taihang Mountains. Our results demon- strate that the water content of the early Cretaceous litho- spheric mantle beneath the south part of the Taihang Mountains was ~ 40 ppm and significantly lower than that of the contemporary lithospheric mantle beneath the eastern part of the NCC. Thus, the hydration of the early Cretaceous lithospheric mantle of the eastern part of the NCC can be ascribed to the subduction of the Pacific plate from the west side. Thus, the main dynamic factor in the destruction of the NCC was likely the subduction of the Pacific plate.     

秦岭造山带岩石圈动力学模型--来自大地电磁测深的证据

目的 建立秦岭造山带的岩石圈动力学模型是探索大陆动力学的前沿问题。方法 以地质和综合地球物理资料为约束，在对秦岭造山带东、西两段电性结构对比分析基础上建立了相应的动力学模型。结果 自中新生代以来，尤其是晚白垩世之后华北和扬子两地块向秦岭造山带持续陆内深俯冲作用，导致南秦岭岩石圈强烈向北挤入，秦岭造山带的后陆冲断褶带和北秦岭厚皮叠瓦逆冲带，现今处于以岩石圈叠置加厚的构造作用为主与拆沉作用初始发动并存状态；南秦岭正在经历拆沉-底侵的物质再循环作用，佛坪和南阳-邓县之间可能发育新的地幔柱；在造山带北、南深部边界与内部不同岩石圈块体之间还伴随不同性质的强烈走滑作用，导致物质的侧向传输。结论 秦岭造山带现今深部动力学状态直接制约着今后大地构造、气候和地表过程的动态相互作用，潜在地影响着人类社会、经济的可持续发展。     

华北克拉通西北部早元古代逆冲构造及其意义

华北克拉通西北部发育一系列早元古代的逆冲构造，它们在岩石组成、构造样式、产状、运动方式和时代等方面的特征具有明显的一致性，表明该地区在早元古代经历了一次强烈的造山作用．这次造山作用使华北克拉通西北部形成．