Degeneration in vitro of post-mitotic neurons overexpressing the Alzheimer amyloid protein precursor.

A pathological hallmark of Alzheimer's disease is the deposition of amyloid fibrils in the brain. The principal component of amyloid fibrils is beta/A4 amyloid protein, which can be generated by the aberrant processing of a large membrane-bound glycoprotein, the beta/A4 amyloid protein precursor (APP)3. To test whether overexpression of APP generates abnormally processed derivatives that affect the viability of neurons, we stably transfected full-length human APP complementary DNA into murine embryonal carcinoma P19 cells. These cells differentiate into post-mitotic neurons and astrocytes after exposure to retinoic acid. When differentiation of the APP cDNA-transfected P19 cells was induced, all neurons showed severe degenerative changes and disappeared within a few days. The degenerating neurons contained large amounts of APP derivatives that were truncated at the amino terminus and encompassed the entire beta/A4 domain. These results suggest that post-mitotic neurons are vulnerable to overexpressed APP, which undergoes aberrant processing to generate potentially amyloidogenic fragments.     

Structure of the cross-beta spine of amyloid-like fibrils

Numerous soluble proteins convert to insoluble amyloid-like fibrils that have common properties. Amyloid fibrils are associated with fatal diseases such as Alzheimer's, and amyloid-like fibrils can be formed in vitro. For the yeast protein Sup35, conversion to amyloid-like fibrils is associated with a transmissible infection akin to that caused by mammalian prions. A seven-residue peptide segment from Sup35 forms amyloid-like fibrils and closely related microcrystals, from which we have determined the atomic structure of the cross-beta spine. It is a double beta-sheet, with each sheet formed from parallel segments stacked in register. Side chains protruding from the two sheets form a dry, tightly self-complementing steric zipper, bonding the sheets. Within each sheet, every segment is bound to its two neighbouring segments through stacks of both backbone and side-chain hydrogen bonds. The structure illuminates the stability of amyloid fibrils, their self-seeding characteristic and their tendency to form polymorphic structures.     

Amyloid plaques, neurofibrillary tangles and neuronal loss in brains of transgenic mice overexpressing a C-terminal fragment of human amyloid precursor protein.

Alzheimer's disease (AD) affects more than 30% of people over 80 years of age. The aetiology and pathogenesis of this progressive dementia is poorly understood, but symptomatic disease is associated histopathologically with amyloid plaques, neurofibrillary tangles and neuronal loss primarily in the temporal lobe and neocortex of the brain. The core of the extracellular plaque is a derivative of the amyloid precursor protein (APP), referred to as beta/A4, and contains the amino-acid residues 29-42 that are normally embedded in the membrane-spanning region of the precursor. The cellular source of APP and the relationship of its deposition to the neuropathology of AD is unknown. To investigate the relationship between APP overexpression and amyloidogenesis, we have developed a vector to drive expression specifically in neurons of a C-terminal fragment of APP that contains the beta/A4 region, and have used a transgenic mouse system to insert and express this construct. We report here that overexpression of this APP transgene in neurons is sufficient to produce extracellular dense-core amyloid plaques, neurofibrillary tangles and neuronal degeneration similar to that in the AD brain.     

Purification and cloning of amyloid precursor protein beta-secretase from human brain

Proteolytic processing of the amyloid precursor protein (APP) generates amyloid beta (Abeta) peptide, which is thought to be causal for the pathology and subsequent cognitive decline in Alzheimer's disease. Cleavage by beta-secretase at the amino terminus of the Abeta peptide sequence, between residues 671 and 672 of APP, leads to the generation and extracellular release of beta-cleaved soluble APP, and a corresponding cell-associated carboxy-terminal fragment. Cleavage of the C-terminal fragment by gamma-secretase(s) leads to the formation of Abeta. The pathogenic mutation K670M671-->N670L671 at the beta-secretase cleavage site in APP, which was discovered in a Swedish family with familial Alzheimer's disease, leads to increased beta-secretase cleavage of the mutant substrate. Here we describe a membrane-bound enzyme activity that cleaves full-length APP at the beta-secretase cleavage site, and find it to be the predominant beta-cleavage activity in human brain. We have purified this enzyme activity to homogeneity from human brain using a new substrate analogue inhibitor of the enzyme activity, and show that the purified enzyme has all the properties predicted for beta-secretase. Cloning and expression of the enzyme reveals that human brain beta-secretase is a new membrane-bound aspartic proteinase.     

Novel precursor of Alzheimer's disease amyloid protein shows protease inhibitory activity

Alzheimer's disease is characterized by cerebral deposits of amyloid beta-protein (AP) as senile plaque core and vascular amyloid, and a complementary DNA encoding a precursor of this protein (APP) has been cloned from human brain. From a cDNA library of a human glioblastoma cell line, we have isolated a cDNA identical to that previously reported, together with a new cDNA which contains a 225-nucleotide insert. The sequence of the 56 amino acids at the N-terminal of the protein deduced from this insert is highly homologous to the basic trypsin inhibitor family, and the lysate from COS-1 cells transfected with the longer APP cDNA showed an increased inhibition of trypsin activity. Partial sequencing of the genomic DNA encoding APP showed that the 225 nucleotides are located in two exons. At least three messenger RNA species, apparently transcribed from a single APP gene by alternative splicing, were found in human brain. We suggest that protease inhibition by the longer APP(s) could be related to aberrant APP catabolism.     

依达拉奉对脑缺血再灌注后Aβ及其前体表达干预

为探讨缺血再灌注对大鼠海马区神经元细胞的损伤机制及依达拉奉的干预作用,利用大脑中动脉线栓法制备大鼠脑缺血再灌模型,缺血2 h后再灌注22 h(术后24 h),按照Zea Longa 5级评分法,对大鼠进行神经行为学评分;通过苏木精-伊红染色法(HE)染色大鼠脑组织,观察其病理形态学的改变;通过免疫组织化学,图像分析及Western Blot的方法检测大鼠海马区β淀粉样蛋白(Aβ)及其前体(APP)的表达。结果显示,模型组大鼠表现出明显的神经功能缺损症状,与之相比,6和10 mg/kg的依达拉奉可不同程度改善损伤模型大鼠的神经缺损症状,尤其是10 mg/kg依达拉奉组的大鼠症状改善更为明显(P0.01);HE染色结果显示,模型组大鼠海马区神经元细胞脱失明显,而治疗组可减轻这种形态学改变;免疫组织化学及Western Blot分析结果提示,在模型组中Aβ、APP表达明显高于假手术组(P0.01),而在不同质量分数依达拉奉组中,Aβ、APP含量均减弱(P0.05)。由此得出,缺血再灌注可能通过上调淀粉样蛋白Aβ及其前体APP而引起神经元细胞损伤,而依达拉奉可能通过对它们的抑制起到保护神经元细胞的作用。     

Segregation of a missense mutation in the amyloid precursor protein gene with familial Alzheimer's disease.

A locus segregating with familial Alzheimer's disease (AD) has been mapped to chromosome 21, close to the amyloid precursor protein (APP) gene. Recombinants between the APP gene and the AD locus have been reported which seemed to exclude it as the site of the mutation causing familial AD. But recent genetic analysis of a large number of AD families has demonstrated that the disease is heterogeneous. Families with late-onset AD do not show linkage to chromosome 21 markers. Some families with early-onset AD show linkage to chromosome 21 markers, but some do not. This has led to the suggestion that there is non-allelic genetic heterogeneity even within early onset familial AD. To avoid the problems that heterogeneity poses for genetic analysis, we have examined the cosegregation of AD and markers along the long arm of chromosome 21 in a single family with AD confirmed by autopsy. Here we demonstrate that in this kindred, which shows linkage to chromosome 21 markers, there is a point mutation in the APP gene. This mutation causes an amino-acid substitution (Val----Ile) close to the carboxy terminus of the beta-amyloid peptide. Screening other cases of familial AD revealed a second unrelated family in which this variant occurs. This suggests that some cases of AD could be caused by mutations in the APP gene.     

The precursor of Alzheimer's disease amyloid A4 protein resembles a cell-surface receptor

Alzheimer's disease is characterized by a widespread functional disturbance of the human brain. Fibrillar amyloid proteins are deposited inside neurons as neurofibrillary tangles and extracellularly as amyloid plaque cores and in blood vessels. The major protein subunit (A4) of the amyloid fibril of tangles, plaques and blood vessel deposits is an insoluble, highly aggregating small polypeptide of relative molecular mass 4,500. The same polypeptide is also deposited in the brains of aged individuals with trisomy 21 (Down's syndrome). We have argued previously that the A4 protein is of neuronal origin and is the cleavage product of a larger precursor protein. To identify this precursor, we have now isolated and sequenced an apparently full-length complementary DNA clone coding for the A4 polypeptide. The predicted precursor consists of 695 residues and contains features characteristic of glycosylated cell-surface receptors. This sequence, together with the localization of its gene on chromosome 21, suggests that the cerebral amyloid deposited in Alzheimer's disease and aged Down's syndrome is caused by aberrant catabolism of a cell-surface receptor.     

The secreted form of the Alzheimer's amyloid precursor protein with the Kunitz domain is protease nexin-II

The A4 protein (or beta-protein) is a 42- or 43-amino-acid peptide present in the extracellular neuritic plaques in Alzheimer's disease and is derived from a membrane-bound amyloid protein precursor (APP). Three forms of APP have been described and are referred to as APP695, APP751 and APP770, reflecting the number of amino acids encoded for by their respective complementary DNAs. The two larger APPs contain a 57-amino-acid insert with striking homology to the Kunitz family of protease inhibitors. Here we report that the deduced amino-terminal sequence of APP is identical to the sequence of a cell-secreted protease inhibitor, protease nexin-II (PN-II). To confirm this finding, APP751 and APP695 cDNAs were over-expressed in the human 293 cell line, and the secreted N-terminal extracellular domains of these APPs were purified to near homogeneity from the tissue-culture medium. The relative molecular mass and high-affinity binding to dextran sulphate of secreted APP751 were consistent with that of PN-II. Functionally, secreted APP751 formed stable, non-covalent, inhibitory complexes with trypsin. Secreted APP695 did not form complexes with trypsin. We conclude that the secreted form of APP with the Kunitz protease inhibitor domain is PN-II.     

A camelid antibody fragment inhibits the formation of amyloid fibrils by human lysozyme

Amyloid diseases are characterized by an aberrant assembly of a specific protein or protein fragment into fibrils and plaques that are deposited in various organs and tissues, often with serious pathological consequences. Non-neuropathic systemic amyloidosis is associated with single point mutations in the gene coding for human lysozyme. Here we report that a single-domain fragment of a camelid antibody raised against wild-type human lysozyme inhibits the in vitro aggregation of its amyloidogenic variant, D67H. Our structural studies reveal that the epitope includes neither the site of mutation nor most residues in the region of the protein structure that is destabilized by the mutation. Instead, the binding of the antibody fragment achieves its effect by restoring the structural cooperativity characteristic of the wild-type protein. This appears to occur at least in part through the transmission of long-range conformational effects to the interface between the two structural domains of the protein. Thus, reducing the ability of an amyloidogenic protein to form partly unfolded species can be an effective method of preventing its aggregation, suggesting approaches to the rational design of therapeutic agents directed against protein deposition diseases.     

Glutamatergic synapses on oligodendrocyte precursor cells in the hippocampus

Fast excitatory neurotransmission in the central nervous system occurs at specialized synaptic junctions between neurons, where a high concentration of glutamate directly activates receptor channels. Low-affinity AMPA (alpha-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl isoxazole propionic acid) and kainate glutamate receptors are also expressed by some glial cells, including oligodendrocyte precursor cells (OPCs). However, the conditions that result in activation of glutamate receptors on these non-neuronal cells are not known. Here we report that stimulation of excitatory axons in the hippocampus elicits inward currents in OPCs that are mediated by AMPA receptors. The quantal nature of these responses and their rapid kinetics indicate that they are produced by the exocytosis of vesicles filled with glutamate directly opposite these receptors. Some of these AMPA receptors are permeable to calcium ions, providing a link between axonal activity and internal calcium levels in OPCs. Electron microscopic analysis revealed that vesicle-filled axon terminals make synaptic junctions with the processes of OPCs in both the young and adult hippocampus. These results demonstrate the existence of a rapid signalling pathway from pyramidal neurons to OPCs in the mammalian hippocampus that is mediated by excitatory, glutamatergic synapses.     

Mutation of the beta-amyloid precursor protein in familial Alzheimer's disease increases beta-protein production.

Progressive cerebral deposition of the 39-43-amino-acid amyloid beta-protein (A beta) is an invariant feature of Alzheimer's disease which precedes symptoms of dementia by years or decades. The only specific molecular defects that cause Alzheimer's disease which have been identified so far are missense mutations in the gene encoding the beta-amyloid precursor protein (beta-APP) in certain families with an autosomal dominant form of the disease (familial Alzheimer's disease, or FAD). These mutations are located within or immediately flanking the A beta region of beta-APP, but the mechanism by which they cause the pathological phenotype of early and accelerated A beta deposition is unknown. Here we report that cultured cells which express a beta-APP complementary DNA bearing a double mutation (Lys to Asn at residue 595 plus Met to Leu at position 596) found in a Swedish FAD family produce approximately 6-8-fold more A beta than cells expressing normal beta-APP. The Met 596 to Leu mutation is principally responsible for the increase. These data establish a direct link between a FAD genotype and the clinicopathological phenotype. Further, they confirm the relevance of the continuous A beta production by cultured cells for elucidating the fundamental mechanism of Alzheimer's disease.     

Structural basis for recognition of the tra mRNA precursor by the Sex-lethal protein

The Sex-lethal (Sxl) protein of Drosophila melanogaster regulates alternative splicing of the transformer (tra) messenger RNA precursor by binding to the tra polypyrimidine tract during the sex-determination process. The crystal structure has now been determined at 2.6 A resolution of the complex formed between two tandemly arranged RNA-binding domains of the Sxl protein and a 12-nucleotide, single-stranded RNA derived from the tra polypyrimidine tract. The two RNA-binding domains have their beta-sheet platforms facing each other to form a V-shaped cleft. The RNA is characteristically extended and bound in this cleft, where the UGUUUUUUU sequence is specifically recognized by the protein. This structure offers the first insight, to our knowledge, into how a protein binds specifically to a cognate RNA without any intramolecular base-pairing.     

川西拗陷中段蓬莱镇组物源及沉积相展布特征

在野外剖面观测、岩心描述及测井资料分析的基础上,综合前人研究成果,对川西拗陷中段上侏罗统蓬莱镇组物源、沉积相类型、沉积环境的展布特征及演化规律进行研究。结果表明:(1)根据砂岩碎屑成分分析及物源区构造背景的分析,研究区具有自龙门山前缘至盆地中部砂岩的石英含量逐渐增多、沉积岩岩屑含量逐渐减少的特征,物源主要为西部的龙门山,而北部的米仓山—大巴山对研究区的影响较小。(2)川西拗陷中段蓬莱镇组主要发育冲积扇、河流、辫状河三角洲、湖泊四大类沉积相类型。(3)编制了川西拗陷中段蓬莱镇组砂岩质量分数等值线图及沉积相图,据此认为蓬莱镇组各个时期的沉积环境及砂体展布特征主要受到湖平面升降及物源供给的控制。蓬莱镇组第一段沉积时期,主要以发育冲积扇—湖泊沉积为特征;第二段沉积时期,冲积扇沉积及河流沉积范围逐渐扩大,辫状河三角洲沉积逐渐向湖盆推进,湖泊沉积的范围逐渐萎缩;第三段沉积时期,区内冲积扇沉积、河流沉积范围逐渐萎缩,而辫状河三角洲沉积规模较第二段沉积期增大,湖泊沉积变化不大;第四段沉积时期,主要以发育河流—湖泊沉积为特征,不发育冲积扇沉积,随着辫状河三角洲沉积的推进,湖泊沉积范围逐渐减小。     

鄂尔多斯盆地南部延长组烃源岩分布及其地球化学特征

为了研究鄂尔多斯盆地南部延长组烃源岩尤其是主力烃源岩的分布及其地球化学特征,系统采集了研究区具有代表性的样品,对其开展各项地球化学实验,并结合相关测井资料进行综合分析.结果表明:烃源岩厚度及有机质丰度分布受沉积环境的影响较大,靠近盆地中央的深湖—半深湖相的泥页岩发育、有机质丰度较高,盆地的边缘相带泥页岩发育程度低、有机质丰度低.长7烃源岩有机质类型以I-Ⅱ_1型为主,生油潜力大,为研究区主力烃源岩;长8,长9烃源岩有机质类型以Ⅱ_1型为了主,生油潜力中等,为次要烃源岩;长4+5和长6烃源岩有机质类型以Ⅱ_2-Ⅲ型为主,生油潜力相对较小,为较差的烃源岩.     

颗粒蛋白前体缺失型腹膜巨噬细胞的体外炎症应答

探讨颗粒蛋白前体缺失型巨噬细胞的体外炎症反应。选取野生型C57BL/6雄性小鼠6-8周(WT)和PGRN基因敲除雄性小鼠6-8周(KO)为实验动物。向小鼠腹腔内注射1m L6%的淀粉,脱颈法处死小鼠后提取腹膜细胞。用瑞士染色后油镜下观察细胞,用流式细胞仪进行细胞检测,显微镜下观察腹膜巨噬细胞吞噬功能,ELISA法检测腹膜巨噬细胞培养上清中TNF-a和IL-12因子。WT小鼠和PGRN基因敲除KO小鼠腹膜细胞的数目、形态和种类及巨细胞表面标志物和巨噬细胞吞噬功能均无显著性差异(p0.05)。PGRN基因敲除KO小鼠来源腹膜巨噬细胞培养上清中前炎性因子TNF-a和IL-12的含量较WT小鼠明显增高。PGRN对腹膜细胞的数目、形态、种类和巨噬细胞表面标志物没有显著影响,但会使巨噬细胞炎症反应增强。     

Generation of cytotoxic T-lymphocyte precursor cells in T-cell colonies grown in vitro

The role of the thymus in T-lymphocyte differentiation remains unclear. The demonstration that the thymus can restrict the T-lymphocyte specificity repertoire suggests that T cells acquire specificity within the thymus. However, the demonstrations of immunocompetent helper T cells and cytotoxic T-lymphocyte precursor cells (CLPs) in athymic nude mice suggest that the acquisition of some T-cell reactivity may occur without the thymus. We have been using T-cell colonies grown in vitro as a model system for studying various aspects of T-cell differentiation in both mouse and man. In one study we showed that CLPs can be found in T-cell colonies grown from spleen cells of normal mice, each colony containing CLPs of several different specificities. The colonies containing CLPs are not clonal, appearing to have a colony-forming unit (CFU-T) of two (perhaps three) cells. Here we provide direct evidence that the CLPs are spontaneously produced in the colonies. In addition, the cells of the CFU-T were characterized with antisera directed against the cell-surface marker Thy-1, which is present on all murine T cells, and the cell-surface markers Lyt-1 and Lyt-2, which are differentially distributed on different T-cell subclasses. We found that the CFU-T contains both a Thy-1+ and a Thy-1- cell, neither of which seems to carry either Lyt-1 or Lyt-2 surface markers.