Biological activity in the deep subsurface and the origin of heavy oil

At temperatures up to about 80 degrees C, petroleum in subsurface reservoirs is often biologically degraded, over geological timescales, by microorganisms that destroy hydrocarbons and other components to produce altered, denser 'heavy oils'. This temperature threshold for hydrocarbon biodegradation might represent the maximum temperature boundary for life in the deep nutrient-depleted Earth. Most of the world's oil was biodegraded under anaerobic conditions, with methane, a valuable commodity, often being a major by-product, which suggests alternative approaches to recovering the world's vast heavy oil resource that otherwise will remain largely unproduced.     

Anaerobic hydrocarbon biodegradation in deep subsurface oil reservoirs

Biodegradation of crude oil in subsurface petroleum reservoirs is an important alteration process with major economic consequences. Aerobic degradation of petroleum hydrocarbons at the surface is well documented and it has long been thought that the flow of oxygen- and nutrient-bearing meteoric waters into reservoirs was necessary for in-reservoir petroleum biodegradation. The occurrence of biodegraded oils in reservoirs where aerobic conditions are unlikely, together with the identification of several anaerobic microorganisms in oil fields and the discovery of anaerobic hydrocarbon biodegradation mechanisms, suggests that anaerobic degradation processes could also be responsible. The extent of anaerobic hydrocarbon degradation processes in the world's deep petroleum reservoirs, however, remains strongly contested. Moreover, no organism has yet been isolated that has been shown to degrade hydrocarbons under the conditions found in deep petroleum reservoirs. Here we report the isolation of metabolites indicative of anaerobic hydrocarbon degradation from a large fraction of 77 degraded oil samples from both marine and lacustrine sources from around the world, including the volumetrically important Canadian tar sands. Our results therefore suggest that anaerobic hydrocarbon degradation is a common process in biodegraded subsurface oil reservoirs.     

深层碎屑岩含油气储层发育特征

基于深层油气藏的最新数据,对世界范围内深层碎屑岩油气藏富集规律及储层发育特征进行了统计分析.中南美和北美(不包括美国本土48州)深层碎屑岩发现的油气探明和控制(2P)可采储量最多,其中北美发现的石油2P可采储量最多,而中南美发现的天然气和凝析油2P可采储量最多.全球深层碎屑岩油气最富集的六大盆地依次为墨西哥湾、东委内瑞拉、阿拉伯、南里海、塔里木和圣克鲁斯-塔里哈盆地.在深层条件下,尽管储层通常表现为物性整体差,但仍可发育优质储层.深层油气勘探应立足于对“甜点”的预测,重点考虑颗粒薄膜、孔隙流体超压和盐岩发育对深层砂岩储层原生孔隙的保存作用.     

Crude-oil biodegradation via methanogenesis in subsurface petroleum reservoirs

Biodegradation of crude oil in subsurface petroleum reservoirs has adversely affected the majority of the world's oil, making recovery and refining of that oil more costly. The prevalent occurrence of biodegradation in shallow subsurface petroleum reservoirs has been attributed to aerobic bacterial hydrocarbon degradation stimulated by surface recharge of oxygen-bearing meteoric waters. This hypothesis is empirically supported by the likelihood of encountering biodegraded oils at higher levels of degradation in reservoirs near the surface. More recent findings, however, suggest that anaerobic degradation processes dominate subsurface sedimentary environments, despite slow reaction kinetics and uncertainty as to the actual degradation pathways occurring in oil reservoirs. Here we use laboratory experiments in microcosms monitoring the hydrocarbon composition of degraded oils and generated gases, together with the carbon isotopic compositions of gas and oil samples taken at wellheads and a Rayleigh isotope fractionation box model, to elucidate the probable mechanisms of hydrocarbon degradation in reservoirs. We find that crude-oil hydrocarbon degradation under methanogenic conditions in the laboratory mimics the characteristic sequential removal of compound classes seen in reservoir-degraded petroleum. The initial preferential removal of n-alkanes generates close to stoichiometric amounts of methane, principally by hydrogenotrophic methanogenesis. Our data imply a common methanogenic biodegradation mechanism in subsurface degraded oil reservoirs, resulting in consistent patterns of hydrocarbon alteration, and the common association of dry gas with severely degraded oils observed worldwide. Energy recovery from oilfields in the form of methane, based on accelerating natural methanogenic biodegradation, may offer a route to economic production of difficult-to-recover energy from oilfields.     

Biodegradation of refractory hydrocarbon biomarkers from petroleum under laboratory conditions

Biomarkers are of great value in petroleum exploration because they provide essential information about the geological history of oils and source rocks. Steranes are of particular importance as they can be related to naturally occurring precursors. These compounds generally experience intense biodegradation, however, which alters their original distribution and obscures the information that they carry regarding oil maturity and source material. In an attempt to identify the microorganisms responsible for this degradation, we have investigated the capacity of 73 aerobic bacteria to degrade steranes present in Rozel Point (Utah) oil. Seven Gram-positive strains, belonging to a limited number of genera, were found to be active. Using Nocardia sp. SEBR 16, which caused the most extensive alteration, we have determined biodegradation rates for several isomers of steranes and methylsteranes. The preference for alteration of different isomers reflects that observed in natural environments, suggesting that the degradation intermediates could be used as indicators of the extent of the biodegradation in an oil. In addition, the microorganisms used here might be effective in biodegrading oil spills.     

在油气藏周围寻找砂岩型铀矿

油气田勘探开发及铀矿勘探开发的实践证明 ,在油气藏周围可找到一批砂岩型铀矿 .在第四系以下的地层中 ,通过区域综合地质研究 ,对已有的老井进行放射性测井复查 ,以现有井筒为基础 ,采用“逐步修正网格法”和“对分距离法”布井 ,运用油田先进的采油工艺技术和设备进行二次开发砂岩型铀矿 ,条件已成熟 .油气藏周围伴生矿产是除石油、天然气资源以外的第三种资源 ,是资源合理开发利用以及经济可持续发展的新的增长点 .其中放射性铀矿与石油天然气共生关系密切 ,经济价值高     

Termination of global warmth at the Palaeocene/Eocene boundary through productivity feedback

The onset of the Palaeocene/Eocene thermal maximum (about 55 Myr ago) was marked by global surface temperatures warming by 5-7 degrees C over approximately 30,000 yr (ref. 1), probably because of enhanced mantle outgassing and the pulsed release of approximately 1,500 gigatonnes of methane carbon from decomposing gas-hydrate reservoirs. The aftermath of this rapid, intense and global warming event may be the best example in the geological record of the response of the Earth to high atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations and high temperatures. This response has been suggested to include an intensified flux of organic carbon from the ocean surface to the deep ocean and its subsequent burial through biogeochemical feedback mechanisms. Here we present firm evidence for this view from two ocean drilling cores, which record the largest accumulation rates of biogenic barium--indicative of export palaeoproductivity--at times of maximum global temperatures and peak excursion values of delta13C. The unusually rapid return of delta13C to values similar to those before the methane release and the apparent coupling of the accumulation rates of biogenic barium to temperature, suggests that the enhanced deposition of organic matter to the deep sea may have efficiently cooled this greenhouse climate by the rapid removal of excess carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.     

辽河西部凹陷兴隆台高潜山内幕油气藏形成条件和成藏特征

利用地震、钻井地质和测试资料，结合储层显微镜观察和原油地球化学分析，对辽河西部凹陷兴隆台高潜山的内部结构、储层特点和油气性质进行了研究。结果表明，新发现的兴古7井潜山油气藏不同于以往发现的风化壳型潜山油气藏，它是一种潜山内幕构造裂缝型的混合变质花岗岩基岩油气藏。兴隆台潜山油气藏体系存在分布于潜山顶部附近的不整合遮挡和分布于潜山内幕的构造裂缝型油气藏两种类型。两者油气来源相同、运聚成藏时期相近，但输导体系不同。潜山浅表层油气藏的油气主要通过不整合面输导运移；深层内幕油气藏的油气主要通过裂缝和断层构成的复杂输导体系运移，断层起“大动脉”作用，裂缝起“微循环”作用，油藏间连通较好。兴隆台潜山内幕油气藏的发现揭示了渤海湾盆地潜山内幕是一个具有勘探潜力的新领域。     

Influence of biodegradation on benzocarbazole distributions in reservoired oils

Partition coefficient difference of benzocarba-zole isomers between oil, water and mineral phase makes them auseful indicator to quantify petroleum migration distance. Because of their nitrogen-heteroatom andannelated aromatic cycles they are generally regarded asbeing more resistant and the effects of biodegradation ontheir concentrations and distributions have not previouslybeen investigated. Reservoir extracts from three wells lo-cated in the Leng43 block of the Liaohe Basin were analyzed to investigate their occurrence and the effect of biodegrada-tion. Both hydrocarbon biomarkers and benzocarbazole isomers show systematical changes with the increase extent of biodegradation in study columns. Carbazole compounds may be biodegraded in a similar way to that observed in aliphatic and aromatic hydrocarbons. The distance from oil water contact is a primary control factor for biodegradation. The concentrations of benzocarbazole isomers show a slight increase in the upper part of the columns then a sharp de-crease towards oil water contact (OWC). Among three iso-mers benzo[a]carbazole seems more susceptible to biode-gradation than other two isomers and benzo[b]carbazole has higher ability to res ist bacterial attack. Benzo[b]carba-zole/benzo- [a]carbazole ratios can sensitively indicate the degree of biodegradation and the benzocarbazole index (BCratio) cannot be directly used as a migration indicator inbiodegraded oils.     

南海北部天然气水合物气源系统与成藏模式

天然气水合物成矿成藏条件与油气成藏条件虽然存在差异,但亦存在共同之处,即均需要有充足烃源供给及烃源供给系统输送与有利聚集场所的时空耦合配置。为了深入研究天然气水合物与常规油气运聚成藏条件之差异,根据南海北部陆坡深水区构造沉积演化特点及油气地质条件与多年来油气及水合物勘探成果,综合剖析了油气及天然气水合物气源构成特点与流体运聚输导系统特征,同时根据地质地球物理及地球化学分析,初步研究了气源供给运聚通道系统类型与高压低温天然气水合物稳定带的时空耦合配置关系,并结合油气地质及天然气水合物成矿成藏基本地质条件,总结和建立了南海北部陆坡深水区“生物气源自生自储扩散运聚型”、“热解气源断层裂隙输导下生上储运移渗漏型”和“热解气源底辟及气烟囱输导下生上储运移渗漏型”等3种成因类型的天然气水合物成矿成藏模式,以期能为南海北部深水区天然气水合物资源预测及有利勘查目标评价优选等提供决策依据与指导。     

敦煌盆地侏罗系致密油地质特征及其意义

敦煌盆地残留性质明显,侏罗纪成盆后改造变化大、油气地质条件复杂。为进一步加快勘探进程,在前期成果基础上,以非常规油气地质理论为指导,从盆地的演化入手,通过新钻探致密油藏的解剖和地质特征的系统研究,明确了侏罗系致密油藏形成条件和地质特征。中下侏罗统发育二套较好烃源岩,其中中间沟组一段的烃源岩有机质含量高、以I～II_1型为主,发育于还原性的湖相环境,为致密油形成提供了较好的物质基础。广泛分布的三角洲、扇三角洲前缘砂体,是致密油聚集的主要场所。近源聚集、保存条件较好的致密油藏是下步勘探的主攻方向,三危山北侧的清台、五墩凹陷烃源岩发育厚度大,其深洼带断层发育较少,后期改造以整体抬升为主,保存相对完整,发育的岩性和构造-岩性圈闭最为有利,特别是被大山口组和中间沟组烃源岩包裹的有利砂体是首选的钻探目标。对区内实现实质性的突破,推动整个河西走廊中小盆地群的油气勘探,均具有重要的现实意义。     

油气地质二元论与石油工业可持续发展

目的 为了开拓油气勘探的思路，探索油气勘探的新领域。方法 从油气地质二元论的思想出发，论述了陆壳结晶基底的通道．块状结构、无机油气的生成和裂谷盆地的形成过程。结果 中地壳费．托合成反应形成的烃类和盆地中干酪根热解生成的烃类是油气的两种来源；大油气田在平面上受通道．块状结构控制，在剖面上受圈闭控制，即更多的油气富集在超基性岩通道上方的圈闭中。结论 油气地质二元论可成为石油工业可持续发展的理论基础。     

Reservoir-forming age and its exploration sisnificance to stratisraphic reservoirs in southern Songliao Basin

Despite many studies concerning the forming age, evolution characteristics and the age of petroleum charging in the Fuxin upheaval of southern Songliao Basin, no consensus has been reached so far. This paper presents the first K-Ar dating of autogenetic illite from stratigraphic petroleum reservoirs in the Fuyu oil layer of the Fuxin upheaval belt. Isotopic test and age calculation were carried out based on the separation and purification of illite mineral, X-diffraction analysis and the detection of scanning electron microscopy. The evolution characteristics of structure, sedimentation, reservoir-forming about the Fuxin upheaval belt were interpreted in terms of the synthetical analysis of ＂six-type geological history＂ evolution in southern Songliao Basin. The geologic background of petroleum evolution and reservoir formation are similar in the entire central depression region of southern Songliao Basin. The Changling sag and the Fuxin upheaval belt brought about obvious upheaval-sag separation after the hydrocarbon-generation peak of K2qn^1 and the main reservoir-forming period of the Fuyu oil layer, namely reservoir-forming happened before the Fuxin upheaval belt extensively raised. The reservoirs have three characteristics： the hydrocarbon source rock above the reservoir, the oil source in the locality, and the vertical migration. The geological cognition is corrected, that is, oil source came from the Changling sag and migrated from the side direction. The bulk process of petroleum charging in the stratigraphic hydrocarbon reservoirs in the Fuxin upheaval belt of southern Songliao Basin is determined according to the isotopic age of autogenetic illite in combination with the method of fluid inclusions. The cognition is helpful to exactly evaluate the resource potential and exploration direction in the Fuxin upheaval belt, Changling sag and their peripheral areas. The present results indicate that the combination of the two methods （the K-Ar dating of autogenetic illite and fluid inclusions） is an effective way to lay bare petroleum charging history and ascertain reservoir age.     

Reservoir-forming age and its exploration significance to stratigraphic reservoirs in southern Songliao Basin

Despite many studies concerning the forming age, evolution characteristics and the age of petroleum charging in the Fuxin upheaval of southern Songliao Basin, no consensus has been reached so far. This paper presents the first K-Ar dating of autogenetic illite from stratigraphic petroleum reservoirs in the Fuyu oil layer of the Fuxin upheaval belt. Isotopic test and age calculation were carried out based on the separation and purification of illite mineral, X-diffraction analysis and the detection of scanning electron microscopy. The evolution characteristics of structure, sedimentation, reservoir-forming about the Fuxin upheaval belt were interpreted in terms of the synthetical analysis of "six-type geological history" evolution in southern Songliao Basin. The geologic background of petroleum evolution and reservoir formation are similar in the entire central depression region of southern Songliao Basin. The Changling sag and the Fuxin upheaval belt brought about obvious upheaval-sag separation after the hydrocarbon-generation peak of K2qn1 and the main reservoir-forming period of the Fuyu oil layer, namely reservoir-forming happened before the Fuxin upheaval belt extensively raised. The reservoirs have three characteristics: the hydrocarbon source rock above the reservoir, the oil source in the lo- cality, and the vertical migration. The geological cognition is corrected, that is, oil source came from the Changling sag and migrated from the side direction. The bulk process of petroleum charging in the stratigraphic hydrocarbon reservoirs in the Fuxin upheaval belt of southern Songliao Basin is deter- mined according to the isotopic age of autogenetic illite in combination with the method of fluid inclu- sions. The cognition is helpful to exactly evaluate the resource potential and exploration direction in the Fuxin upheaval belt, Changling sag and their peripheral areas. The present results indicate that the combination of the two methods (the K-Ar dating of autogenetic illite and fluid inclusions) is an effec- tive way to lay bare petroleum charging history and ascertain reservoir age.     

准噶尔盆地车排子凸起隐蔽油气藏成藏机理

综合运用地质、地球物理、油气藏地球化学及盆地模拟领域中先进的技术与研究方法,以盆地演化和流体输导格架为成藏背景,从有效烃源岩及其生排烃历史出发,以能量场演化及其控制的化学动力学、流体动力学和运动学过程为核心,探讨了准噶尔盆地车排子凸起隐蔽油气藏的成藏机理.研究表明,油气藏主要以昌吉凹陷二叠系和四棵树凹陷侏罗系油气2期充注混源而成,油气分别以早期净浮力、晚期强超压为驱动机制,以不整合/区域性砂体、构造断裂为优势运移通道构成2源2期充注、阶梯式输导、地层/岩性型聚集的成藏模式.     

塔里木盆地大中型油气田形成及分布规律

目的 探讨塔里木盆地油气藏形成及分布规律,为油气田勘探部署提供依据。方法 运用石油地质综合研究方法,探讨了区域构造背景,有效烃源岩分布及其成熟度、储盖组合、后期构造变动等对塔里木盆地大中型油气田形成及分布的控制作用。结果 塔里木盆地油气分布十分复杂,油气藏形成及分布受多重因素控制;早期形成、长期继承发育的大型稳定古隆起及其斜坡以及前陆逆冲带第2,3排构造分别是大中型油气田形成的最有利地区;古隆起控油、斜坡富集以及隆起高部位油气易发生调整、斜坡部位有利于保存,是克拉通区油气藏形成和分布的重要特点;已发现的油气藏具有多期成藏、晚期调整的特点,早期形成的原生油气藏后期特别是晚喜山期普遍受到了调整改造,以克拉通区海相油气藏最为突出;保存条件对塔里木盆地油气藏形成与分布具有重要控制作用,特别是优质区域盖层的存在,是大中型油气田形成和保存的关键。结论 继承性古隆起与隐伏前陆逆冲带是塔里木克拉通区与前陆区寻找大中型油气田的最有利地区。     

原油热蚀变程度评价指标研究——以准噶尔盆地南缘霍尔果斯和呼图壁油气田为例

 石油的次生变化对石油性质的改造有时会超过有机质来源和热成熟度作用的影响,而热蚀变是地史时期地质体中一种较为常见的次生变化。本文选取准噶尔盆地南缘原油样品系统模拟热蚀变过程,并进行数据分析,从中筛选出相关性良好的菲/甲基菲(P/MP)比值和(3-MP＋2-MP)/(9-MP＋1-MP)比值两项指标,它们能够很好地反映原油热变程度;根据筛选出的这两项指标,制作了判别原油热蚀变程度的图版。应用该图版分析准噶尔盆地南缘霍尔果斯和呼图壁油气田原油热蚀变程度,结果显示,霍尔果斯霍10井原油可能为原生油藏,热变程度较低,而霍浅1和霍002原油可能是由埋藏较深、热变程度高的原始油藏向上运移产生的次生油气藏;准噶尔南缘的安5井、石南31井及呼图壁气田中的呼2井原油处于正常成熟阶段,表明其所处油气藏基本上为原生油气藏。     

深层油田人工举升采油技术

深层油田的开发对油田开发工作者提出了新的挑战,由于深井具有高压和高温等特点,因此对钻井和采油提出了较高的要求。针对深层油田的特点,对各种人工举升采油方法进行总结,分析和总结了深井人工举升采油方法,用实例说明水力泵、有杆泵、气举和电潜泵在深层油田采油中的应用。     

横山地区长6油藏储层特征研究

横山地区具备良好的石油地质条件和油气勘探前景。多年来的勘探成果表明,在横山县南部500平方千米范围内油气显示比较普遍,局部具有富集成藏的良好条件,目前已经在三叠系延长组长2和长6层获得油气突破,并控制了较大的含油面积,成为横山采油厂近年来的主力开发和上产层位。区内长2层已经动用完毕并获得了很好的开发效果。长6油层含水较高,初产一般较高,但递减迅速。为了有效解决长6油层递减速度过快的问题,加深油藏储层特征的认识程度显得非常有必要。     

A periodic shear-heating mechanism for intermediate-depth earthquakes in the mantle

Intermediate-depth earthquakes, at depths of 50-300 km in subduction zones, occur below the brittle-ductile transition, where high pressures render frictional failure unlikely. Their location approximately coincides with 600 to 800 degrees C isotherms in thermal models, suggesting a thermally activated mechanism for their origin. Some earthquakes may occur by frictional failure owing to high pore pressure that might result from metamorphic dehydration. Because some intermediate-depth earthquakes occur approximately 30 to 50 km below the palaeo-sea floor, however, the hydrous minerals required for the dehydration mechanism may not be present. Here we present an alternative mechanism to explain such earthquakes, involving the onset of highly localized viscous creep in pre-existing, fine-grained shear zones. Our numerical model uses olivine flow laws for a fine-grained, viscous shear zone in a coarse-grained, elastic half space, with initial temperatures from 600-800 degrees C and background strain rates of 10(-12) to 10(-15) s(-1). When shear heating becomes important, strain rate and temperature increase rapidly to over 1 s(-1) and 1,400 degrees C. The stress then drops dramatically, followed by low strain rates and cooling. Continued far-field deformation produces a quasi-periodic series of such instabilities.