Prelude to dimension theory: The geometrical investigations of Bernard Bolzano

This paper treats Bernard Bolzano's (1781–1848) investigations into a fundamental problem of geometry: the problem of adequately defining the concepts of line (or curve), surface, solid, and continuum. Bolzano's interest in this problem spanned most of his creative lifetime. In this paper a full discussion is given of the philosophical and mathematical motivation of Bolzano's problem as well as his two solutions to the problem. Bolzano's work on this part of geometry is relevant to the history of modern mathematics, because it forms a prelude to the more recent development of topological dimension theory.     

Aristotelian chemistry: A prelude to duhemian metaphysics

In 1904 Joachim published an influential paper dealing with ‘Aristotle's Conception of Chemical Combination’¹ which has provided the basis of much more recent studies.² About the same time, Duhem³ developed what he regarded as an essentially Aristotelian view of chemistry, based on his understanding of phenomenological thermodynamics. He does not present a detailed textual analysis, but rather emphasises certain general ideas. Joachim's classic paper contains obscurities which I have been unable to fathom and theses which do not seem to be fully explained, or which at least seem difficult for the modern reader to understand. An attempt is made here to provide a systematic account of the Aristotelian theory of the generation of substances by the mixing of elements by reconsidering Joachim's treatment in the light of the sort of points which most interested Duhem.The work described in this paper was undertaken with a view to providing a basis for presenting, evaluating and criticising Duhem's understanding of what was for him modern (i.e. 19th-century) chemistry. This latter project will be taken up on another occasion. I hope the present paper will be of some value to a broader philosophical readership in so far as it provides a fairly clear conception of matter which might be called Aristotelian, even if it is not precisely Aristotle's, and raises certain clear problems of interpretation. It may also be of interest to historians of chemistry in suggesting an analysis of the old chemical notion of a mixt independent of atomic theories.     

Analytical chemistry

Cellular and Molecular Life Sciences -     

Advances in nitrile oxides chemistry

Riassunto Dopo una breve introduzione storica, viene dato un quadro delle attuali conoscenze sulla chimica degli ossidi di nitrili con particolare riguardo ai suoi più recenti sviluppi. L'applicazione di metodi già noti e l'introduzione di nuovi metodi di preparazione hanno portato alla cinquantina il numero dei nitrilossidi isolati, oltre a quelli numerosi preparati in situ e utilizzati in reazioni di addizione senza isolarli. Vengono esaminate le reazioni di dimerizzazione e polimerizzazione, le numerose reazioni di addizione nucleofila che mettono in evidenza lo spiccato carattere elettrofilo dei nitrilossidi e, in particolare le addizioni sopra i legami etilenici e acetilenici che portano a isossazoline e isossazoli. Nuove acquisizioni sperimentali, come l'isolamento in rese sostanziali e talvolta preponderanti di ossime acetileniche accanto agli isossazoli, rimettono sul tappeto la questione della via battuta da quest'ultima reazione, suggerendo come possibile alternativa al meccanismo generalmente ammesso di cicloaddizione 1,3-dipolare concertata quello che passa attraverso uno «zwitterione» intermedio, dal quale tanto l'isossazolo che l'ossima possono pren'dere origine. Viene illustrate l'effetto catalitico del BF₃ su alcune reazioni di addizione dei nitrilossidi, che consente l'ampliamento del campo di applicazione di queste reazioni. Vengono infine riportati i primi risultati dello studio della reattività dei nitrilossidi verso i radicali liberi al carbonio, studio che appare suscettibile di interessanti sviluppi.

---

---

12. Paul-Karrer-Vorlesung in der Aula der Universität Zürich am 24. Juni 1970.     

The chemistry of certain imines related to the diterpene alkaloids

Zusammenfassung Aconitum- und Delphinium-Alkaloide gehen teilweise ungewöhnliche chemische Reaktionen ein, deren Ursache in der polycyclischen Struktur, im besonderen in deren hohem Grad von Brückenbildungen zu suchen ist.Einige dieser Reaktionen, speziell solche der Imine und Imminiumsalze der Diterpenalkaloide Atisin und Veatchin werden diskutiert.

---

---

Parts of this paper were presented before the Symposium on Enamine Chemistry at the American Chemical Society meeting in Chicago, September 6 (1961), and at the International Phytochemistry Symposium held during the Golden Jubilee Congress of the University of Hong Kong on September 12 (1961).     

John Dalton’s puzzles: from meteorology to chemistry

Historical research on John Dalton has been dominated by an attempt to reconstruct the origins of his so-called “chemical atomic theory”. I show that Dalton’s theory is difficult to define in any concise manner, and that there has been no consensus as to its unique content among his contemporaries, later chemists, and modern historians. I propose an approach which, instead of attempting to work backward from Dalton’s theory, works forward, by identifying the research questions that Dalton posed to himself and attempting to understand how his hypotheses served as answers to these questions. I describe Dalton’s scientific work as an evolving set of puzzles about natural phenomena. I show how an early interest in meteorology led Dalton to see the constitution of the atmosphere as a puzzle. In working on this great puzzle, he gradually turned his interest to specifically chemical questions. In the end, the web of puzzles that he worked on required him to create his own novel philosophy of chemistry for which he is known today.     

产业生态学和生态产业转型

本文分析了产业生态学出现的背景,详述了产业生态的基本概念,研究方法和研究热点,提出生态产业是按生态经济原理和知识经济规律组织起来的基于生态系统承载能力、具有高效的经济过程及和谐的生态功能的网络型进化型产业。它通过两个或两个以生产体系或环节之间的系统耦合,使物质、能量能多级利用、高效产出,资源、环境能系统开业、持续利用。本文还提出了生态产业建设的８个原则和方法。并提出了产业生态管理的５种方法：生命周期评价（面向产品环境管理）;产品生态设计（面向绿色产品开发）;生态产业园规划（面向区域的规划）;生态产业孵化（面向生态产业开发）;生态管理（面向持续发展）。     

The notion of nature in chemistry

If nature is by definition the object of the natural sciences, then the dichotomy ‘natural’ versus ‘chemical’, held by both chemists and nonchemists, suggests an idiosyncrasy of chemistry. The first part of the paper presents a selective historical analysis of the main notions of nature in chemistry, as developed in early Christian views of chemical crafts, alchemy, iatrochemistry, mechanical philosophy, organic chemistry, and contemporary drug research. I argue that the dichotomy as well as quasi-moral judgments of chemistry have been based on static and teleological notions of nature throughout history and that chemists, unlike physicists, have neglected the dynamic notion of nature. The second part provides a philosophical criticism of the former notions and argues for the latter as well as for an explicit discourse about values in chemistry.     

Molecular recognition in applied enzyme chemistry

Molecular recognition impinges upon many fields of biological chemistry, especially those involving catalytic processes. This review gives examples from studies at Strathclyde of both small and macromolecular systems. Mechanism-based enzyme inhibitors are described with reference to dihydrofolate reductase, dihydroorotate dehydrogenase, and cholesterol metabolism. Applications of molecular recognition related to synthetic transformations are discussed in terms of aromatic substitution, chemically modified papain, and catalytic antibodies for Diels-Alder reactions.     

Aspects of mass spectrometry in organic chemistry

Zusammenfassung Massenspektrometrie ist die instrumentalanalytische Methode mit der grössten Anwendungsvielfalt im naturwissenschaftlichen Bereich. Auf dem Gebiet der organischen Chemie sind derzeit qualitative Strukturanalyse und die Analyse stabiler Isotopen die wichtigsten in einer ganzen Reihe von Applikationsmöglichkeiten. In strukturanalytischer Hinsicht handelt es sich im wesentlichen um eine chemische Reaktionsspektroskopie, die als Nebenprodukt der Ionenerzeugung anfällt. Man könnte diese Tatsache für synthetische oder präparative Zwecke ausnützen, wenn der Mengendurchsatz in einem Massenspektrometer nicht so klein wäre.Der wissenschaftlichen Forschung sind in diesem Zusammenhang Aufgaben gestellt, welche die Entwicklung optimaler Geräte zum Ziel haben, eine wirkungsvolle Bearbeitung und Auswertung der riesigen Datenmengen, die besonders in Zusammenhang mit hochauflösender Massenspektrometrie und in direkter Kombination mit Gaschromatographie anfallen, sowie ein besseres Verständnis für die Vorgänge, die der massenspektrometrischen Strukturanalyse zugrunde liegen, um sichere Voraussagen zu ermöglichen.In jüngster Zeit zeichnet sich eine Entwicklung ab, die sich das Massenspektrometer als vielversprechendes Instrument der chemischen Grundlagenforschung zunutze macht. Die Untersuchung des Zerfalls metastabiler Ionen scheint eine wirkungsvolle Methode zu werden, um Informationen über die Kinetik und Thermodynamik monomolekularer Abbaureaktionen zu erarbeiten.     

Blood chemistry ofLamellidens corrianus

Résumé Le sang deLamellidens corrianus est alcalin et incolore. Il contient peu de pigment respiratoire et de proteines. Le plasma contient peu de glucose et pas de fibrogène au d'agglutinines humaines. Une activité des enzymes amylase, GOT et des phosphatases a été constaté.

---

---

It is a pleasure to acknowledge the stimulation received from Mr.M. P. Singh, Experimental Pathologist, King George's Medical College, Lucknow.     

Molecular recognition in applied enzyme chemistry.

Molecular recognition impinges upon many fields of biological chemistry, especially those involving catalytic processes. This review gives examples from studies at Strathclyde of both small and macromolecular systems. Mechanism-based enzyme inhibitors are described with reference to dihydrofolate reductase, dihydroorotate dehydrogenase, and cholesterol metabolism. Applications of molecular recognition related to synthetic transformations are discussed in terms of aromatic substitution, chemically modified papain, and catalytic antibodies for Diels-Alder reactions.     

The double transfer of thermodynamics: From physics to chemistry and from Europe to America

The aim of this study is twofold: to explore, first, the influence of the intellectual and social conditions on the transfer of thermodynamics to chemistry and thereby the making of chemical thermodynamics, and second, the way that this knowledge was transferred from Europe to America. Consequently, it is of interest to examine the methodological approaches used by physicists and chemists to transfer thermodynamics to chemistry, to evaluate the potential of this science to offer solutions to existing chemical problems, and to discuss the attitude of the scientific community towards these new ideas. The development of chemical thermodynamics in America followed a different route compared to the European experience. Although it was transferred from Europe, it had distinctive characteristics imposed by a different traditional, intellectual and social milieu. This study focuses on the content of the transferred knowledge to America and the direction that this knowledge assumed by the American scientists. As a paradigm, the chemical thermodynamics of Gilbert Newton Lewis will be considered.     

The chemistry of thespesin

Zusammenfassung Thespesin, der optisch aktive gelbe Farbstoff aus den Früchten derThespesia populens Soland hat eine dimere sesquiterpene-naphthalene Struktur, die mit dem optischen inaktiven Baumwollsamen-Farbstoff Gossypol identisch ist. Die optische Aktivität des Thespesin ist bedingt durch Atropisomerie.

---

---

Communication No. 1225 from the Central Drug Research Institute.     

The chemistry and biology of inhibitors and pro-drugs targeted to glutathione S-transferases

The cytosolic glutathione S-transferases are a family of structurally homologous enzymes with multiple functions, including xenobiotic detoxification, clearance of oxidative stress products, and modulation of cell proliferation and apoptosis signaling pathways. This wideranging functional repertoire leads to several possible therapeutic uses for isoform-specific GST inhibitors. These inhibitors may be used, in principle, to modulate tumor cell drug resistance, as sensitizers to therapeutically directed oxidative stress, to enhance cell proliferation and to augment anti-malarial drugs. With increasing knowledge of GST structural and function, rational design strategies and mechanism-based inhibitors have been exploited successfully. However, design of isoform specificity remains a significant challenge in GST inhibitor development. Strategies for further inhibitor design and their possible limitations, along with potential therapeutic uses, are summarized.Received 24 November 2004; received after revision 12 January 2005; accepted 11 February 2005