The Price of Success: Sociologist Harry Alpert,the NSF's First Social Science Policy Architect

Harry Alpert (1912–1977), the US sociologist, is best-known for his directorship of the National Science Foundation's social science programme in the 1950s. This study extends our understanding of Alpert in two main ways: first, by examining the earlier development of his views and career. Beginning with his 1939 biography of Emile Durkheim, we explore the early development of Alpert's views about foundational questions concerning the scientific status of sociology and social science more generally, proper social science methodology, the practical value of social science, the academic institutionalisation of sociology, and the unity-of-science viewpoint. Second, this paper illuminates Alpert's complex involvement with certain tensions in mid-century US social science that were themselves linked to major transformations in national science policy, public patronage, and unequal relations between the social and natural sciences. We show that Alpert's views about the intellectual foundations, practical relevance, and institutional standing of the social sciences were, in some important respects, at odds with his NSF policy work. Although remembered as a quantitative evangelist and advocate for the unity-of-science viewpoint, Alpert was in fact an urbane critic of natural-science envy, social scientific certainty, and what he saw as excessive devotion to quantitative methods.     

Aspects of the theory of hydrogen overpotential

Zusammenfassung 1. Unter Benützung einer Theorie vonEyring, Glasstone undLaidler werden Messungen der Überspannung von Wasserstoff und Sauerstoff an verschiedenen Metallen ausgewertet. Hierbei werden insbesondere die Werte einer für die Theorie wesentlichen Konstante «B » berechnet. Es ergibt sich, daß diese Größe «B » nur in 8 von 13 untersuchten Fällen ein und denselben, vom Material und von der Konzentration unabhängigen Wert besitzt. Nach der Auffassung der genannten Autoren sollte die Material- und Konzentrationsunabhängigkeit, bzw. Konstanz allgemein vorhanden sein. Die Theorie vonEyring, Glasstone undLaidler kann also in ihrer jetzigen Gestalt sicher nicht allgemeingültig sein.2. Für eine Reihe von Metallen werden die unter vergleichbaren Versuchsbedingungen beobachteten Werte der Überspannung von Wasserstoff gegen die entsprechenden Elektronenaustrittsarbeiten aufgetragen. Hierbei ergibt sich eine Trennung der Metalle in zwei Hauptgruppen. Innerhalb jeder dieser Gruppen nimmt die Größe der Überspannung mit steigenden Werten der Austrittsarbeiten ab.     

Aspects of mass spectrometry in organic chemistry

Zusammenfassung Massenspektrometrie ist die instrumentalanalytische Methode mit der grössten Anwendungsvielfalt im naturwissenschaftlichen Bereich. Auf dem Gebiet der organischen Chemie sind derzeit qualitative Strukturanalyse und die Analyse stabiler Isotopen die wichtigsten in einer ganzen Reihe von Applikationsmöglichkeiten. In strukturanalytischer Hinsicht handelt es sich im wesentlichen um eine chemische Reaktionsspektroskopie, die als Nebenprodukt der Ionenerzeugung anfällt. Man könnte diese Tatsache für synthetische oder präparative Zwecke ausnützen, wenn der Mengendurchsatz in einem Massenspektrometer nicht so klein wäre.Der wissenschaftlichen Forschung sind in diesem Zusammenhang Aufgaben gestellt, welche die Entwicklung optimaler Geräte zum Ziel haben, eine wirkungsvolle Bearbeitung und Auswertung der riesigen Datenmengen, die besonders in Zusammenhang mit hochauflösender Massenspektrometrie und in direkter Kombination mit Gaschromatographie anfallen, sowie ein besseres Verständnis für die Vorgänge, die der massenspektrometrischen Strukturanalyse zugrunde liegen, um sichere Voraussagen zu ermöglichen.In jüngster Zeit zeichnet sich eine Entwicklung ab, die sich das Massenspektrometer als vielversprechendes Instrument der chemischen Grundlagenforschung zunutze macht. Die Untersuchung des Zerfalls metastabiler Ionen scheint eine wirkungsvolle Methode zu werden, um Informationen über die Kinetik und Thermodynamik monomolekularer Abbaureaktionen zu erarbeiten.     

Aspects of Aristotelian statics in Galileo's dynamics

This paper examines geometrical arguments from Galileo's Mechanics and Two New Sciences to discern the influence of the Aristotelian Mechanical Problems on Galileo's dynamics. A common scientific procedure is found in the Aristotelian author's treatment of the balance and lever and in Galileo's rules concerning motion along inclined planes. This scientific procedure is understood as a development of Eudoxan proportional reasoning, as it was used in Eudoxan astronomy rather than simply as it appears in Euclid's Elements. Topics treated include the significance of the circle in Galileo's demonstrations, the substitution of rectilinear elements for heterogeneous factors like weight and curvilinear distance, and the way in which elements of a motion are used to measure other elements of the same motion. The indirectness of Galileo's proofs, his conception of speed as relative and comparative, and the meaning of his concept of moment all come into clearer focus. Conclusions are drawn about Galilean idealization, and also about the contrast of literal versus figural modes of explanation in Galileo's science.     

Aspects of measurement and analysis of regulatory peptides

Summary Although almost all methods of mass measurement of regulatory peptides still depend on the high affinity antibody, the traditional Yalow and Berson radioimmunoassay technique is becoming outdated. Pure monoclonal antibodies allow excess antibody two site assay techniques with a variety of different labels (preferentially non-radioactive) of great sensitivity and speed. The large amounts of particular monoclonal antibodies available allow several different laboratories to use the same reagents and have increased comparability. Unfortunately many regulatory peptides exist in multiple molecular forms and attention must be paid to antibody region specificity. Improved methods of extraction of regulatory peptides from plasma tissue allow more accurate quantitation. New techniques for rapid high resolution chromatography make distinction of different molecular forms much easier than hitherto. Better education in techniques and/or attention to inter-assay standards are necessary to improve the comparability of regulatory peptide measurement in the future.     

科学的数学化

本文简略途述了自然科学和社会科学数学化的历史进程,认为数学化是科学发展的必然趋势,自然科学已大部分成数学化,而社会科学的数学还有很多工作要做。     

科学的气候

故明君贤将,所以动而胜人,成功出于众者,先知也.先知者,不可取于鬼神,不可象于事,不可验于度,必取于人,知敌情者也.     

Aspects biochimiques des herbicides à base de triazines

Summary The triazine herbicides are potent inhibitors of theHill reaction, resembling the phenylureas, acylanilides and carbamates. The inhibition of the photosynthesis by the triazines is the most obvious explanation for their mode of action in plant metabolism. Besides this there are also effects on light independent reactions where the effective concentrations are higher than those inhibiting the photosynthesis. Particularly, a positive influence of the triazines on the uptake of the nutrients by the roots was noted. Changes in the nitrogen metabolism of the plants, due to increased uptake of nitrate from the medium, result in a higher content of organic nitrogen in the plants.Several enzyme systems in plants and in micro-organisms are influenced by the triazine herbicides. Until now, the mechanism of action has not been elucidated.Concerning the phenomenon of the selectivity of the triazine herbicides, several factors may be responsible. The different abilities of the plant species to metabolize the herbicide and to translocate it to the active centres in the cells are significant from the biochemical point of view.

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Une partie de ce travail a été présentée lors de la 463^e séance de la Biochemical Society, Aberystwyth, septembre 1966.P. W. Müller, Biochem. J.101, 1P. (1966).Nous tenons à exprimer nos remerciements àR. Truan qui a bien voulu se charger de la version française ainsi qu'àG. Dupuis pour sa participation à la mise au point du manuscrit.     

Aspects of Quantum Non-Locality II: Superluminal Causation and Relativity

In a preceding paper, I studied the significance of Jarrett's and Shimony's analyses of ‘factorisability’ into ‘parameter independence’ and ‘outcome independence’ for clarifying the nature of non-locality in quantum phenomena. I focused on four types of non-locality; superluminal signalling, action-at-a-distance, non-separability and holism. In this paper, I consider a fifth type of non-locality: superluminal causation according to ‘logically weak’ concepts of causation, where causal dependence requires neither action nor signalling. I conclude by considering the compatibility of non-factorisable theories with relativity theory. In this connection, I pay special attention to the difficulties that superluminal causation raises in relativistic spacetime. My main findings in this paper are: first, parameter-dependent and outcome-dependent theories both involve superluminal causal connections between outcomes and between settings and outcomes. Second, while relativistic deterministic parameter-dependent theories seem impossible on pain of causal paradoxes, relativistic indeterministic parameter-dependent theories are not subjected to the same challenge. Third, current relativistic non-factorisable theories seem to have some rather unattractive characteristics.     

Aspects of gene polymorphisms in cerebral infarction: inflammatory cytokines

During the last decade, a growing corpus of evidence has indicated an important role of inflammatory cytokines in the pathogenesis of cerebral lesion following stroke. Recent data suggest that genetics may in turn contribute to modulating the effects of inflammatory cytokines on cerebral infarction (CI). This paper reviews the physiologic characteristics of major inflammatory cytokines and recent research developments related to cell biology and pathobiology in CI. In particular, this review focuses on the genetic aspects of inflammatory cytokines and their implications in CI.Received 22 June 2004; received after revision 11 November 2004; accepted 16 December 2004     

Science at Oxford

Faraday demonstrated electromagnetic induction in 1831 using an iron ring wound with two wire coils; on interrupting battery current in one coil, momentary currents arose in the other. Between Faraday's ring and the induction coil, coiled instruments developed via meandering paths. This paper explores the opening phase of that work in the late 1830s, as the iron core, primary wire coil, and secondary wire coil were researched and differentiated. ‘Working knowledge’ (defined by Baird) gained with materials and phenomena was crucial to innovations. To understand these material-based interactions, I experimented with hand-wound coils, along with examining historical texts, drawings, and artefacts. My experience recovered the historical dead-end of two-wire coils and ensuing work with long-coiled single conductors initiated by Faraday and Henry. The shock and spark heightened in these coils provided feedback to the many instrumental configurations tested by Page, Callan, Sturgeon, Bachhoffner, and others. The continuous conductor differentiated into two segments soldered together: a thick short wire carrying battery current and a long thin wire for elevating shocks (voltage). The joined wires eventually separated, yet their transitional connection documents belief that the induced effects depend on continuity. These coiled instruments, with their intertwined histories, show experimental work and understandings in the process of developing. Seeing the nonlinear paths by which these instruments developed deepens our understanding of historical experiences, and of how people learn.