Evidence for enhanced mixing over rough topography in the abyssal ocean

The overturning circulation of the ocean plays an important role in modulating the Earth's climate. But whereas the mechanisms for the vertical transport of water into the deep ocean--deep water formation at high latitudes--and horizontal transport in ocean currents have been largely identified, it is not clear how the compensating vertical transport of water from the depths to the surface is accomplished. Turbulent mixing across surfaces of constant density is the only viable mechanism for reducing the density of the water and enabling it to rise. However, measurements of the internal wave field, the main source of energy for mixing, and of turbulent dissipation rates, have typically implied diffusivities across surfaces of equal density of only approximately 0.1 cm2 s(-1), too small to account for the return flow. Here we report measurements of tracer dispersion and turbulent energy dissipation in the Brazil basin that reveal diffusivities of 2-4 cm2 s(-1) at a depth of 500 m above abyssal hills on the flank of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, and approximately 10 cm2 s(-1) nearer the bottom. This amount of mixing, probably driven by breaking internal waves that are generated by tidal currents flowing over the rough bathymetry, may be large enough to close the buoyancy budget for the Brazil basin and suggests a mechanism for closing the global overturning circulation.     

River plumes as a source of large-amplitude internal waves in the coastal ocean

Satellite images have long revealed the surface expression of large amplitude internal waves that propagate along density interfaces beneath the sea surface. Internal waves are typically the most energetic high-frequency events in the coastal ocean, displacing water parcels by up to 100 m and generating strong currents and turbulence that mix nutrients into near-surface waters for biological utilization. While internal waves are known to be generated by tidal currents over ocean-bottom topography, they have also been observed frequently in the absence of any apparent tide-topography interactions. Here we present repeated measurements of velocity, density and acoustic backscatter across the Columbia River plume front. These show how internal waves can be generated from a river plume that flows as a gravity current into the coastal ocean. We find that the convergence of horizontal velocities at the plume front causes frontal growth and subsequent displacement downward of near-surface waters. Individual freely propagating waves are released from the river plume front when the front's propagation speed decreases below the wave speed in the water ahead of it. This mechanism generates internal waves of similar amplitude and steepness as internal waves from tide-topography interactions observed elsewhere, and is therefore important to the understanding of coastal ocean mixing.     

Significant dissipation of tidal energy in the deep ocean inferred from satellite altimeter data

How and where the ocean tides dissipate their energy are long-standing questions that have consequences ranging from the history of the Moon to the mixing of the oceans. Historically, the principal sink of tidal energy has been thought to be bottom friction in shallow seas. There has long been suggestive evidence, however, that tidal dissipation also occurs in the open ocean through the scattering by ocean-bottom topography of surface tides into internal waves, but estimates of the magnitude of this possible sink have varied widely. Here we use satellite altimeter data from Topex/Poseidon to map empirically the tidal energy dissipation. We show that approximately 10(12) watts--that is, 1 TW, representing 25-30% of the total dissipation--occurs in the deep ocean, generally near areas of rough topography. Of the estimated 2 TW of mixing energy required to maintain the large-scale thermohaline circulation of the ocean, one-half could therefore be provided by the tides, with the other half coming from action on the surface of the ocean.     

Intense mixing of lower thermocline water on the crest of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge

Buoyancy exchange between the deep and the upper ocean, which is essential for maintaining global ocean circulation, mainly occurs through turbulent mixing. This mixing is thought to result primarily from instability of the oceanic internal wave field, but internal waves tend to radiate energy away from the regions in which they are generated rather than dissipate it locally as turbulence and the resulting distribution of turbulent mixing remains unknown. Another, more direct, mixing mechanism involves the generation of turbulence as strong flows pass through narrow passages in topography, but the amount of turbulence generated at such locations remains poorly quantified owing to a lack of direct measurements. Here we present observations from the crest of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge in the subtropical North Atlantic Ocean that suggest that passages in rift valleys and ridge-flank canyons provide the most energetic sites for oceanic turbulence. Our measurements show that diffusivities as large as 0.03 m2 s(-1) characterize the mixing downstream of a sill in a well-stratified boundary layer, with mixing levels remaining of the order of 10(-4) m2 s(-1) at the base of the main thermocline. These mixing rates are significantly higher than the diffusivities of the order of 10(-5) m2 s(-1) that characterize much of the global thermocline and the abyssal ocean. Our estimates suggest that overflows associated with narrow passages on the Mid-Atlantic Ridge in the North Atlantic Ocean produce as much buoyancy flux as has previously been estimated for the entire Romanche fracture zone, a large strait in the Mid-Atlantic Ridge that connects the North and South Atlantic basins. This flux is equivalent to the interior mixing that occurs in the entire North Atlantic basin at the depth of the passages, suggesting that turbulence generated in narrow passages on mid-ocean ridges may be important for buoyancy flux at the global scale.     

Characteristics of tidal gravity changes in Lhasa, Tibet, China

Tidal gravity changes arise from the response of the solid Earth to the tidal forces of the Sun,Moon and planets close to the Earth,and are a comprehensive reflection of the structure and distribution of physical properties of the Earth’s interior.As a result,observations of tidal gravity changes are the basis of studies on other global and/or regional dynamic processes.The characteristics of tidal gravity changes in the region of the Tibetan Plateau were investigated through continuous gravity measurements recorded with a superconducting gravimeter (SG) installed in Lhasa over a year.Through contrast measurements with a spring gravimeter LaCoste-Romberg ET20 at the same site,the gravity observations in Lhasa were scaled to the international tidal gravity reference in Wuhan.Meanwhile,the scale factor of the SG was determined accurately as-777.358 ± 0.136 nm s-2V-1,which is about 2.2% less than the value provided by the manufacturer.The results indicate that the precision of the tidal gravity observations made with the SG in Lhasa was very high.The standard deviation was 0.459 nm s-2,and the uncertainties of for the four main tidal waves (i.e.O 1,K 1,M 2 and S 2) were better than 0.006%.In addition,the observations of the diurnal gravity tides had an obvious pattern of nearly diurnal resonance.As a result,it is affirmed that the Lhasa station can provide a local tidal gravity reference for gravity measurements on the Tibetan Plateau and its surrounding regions.The loading effects of oceanic tides on tidal gravity observations in Lhasa are so weak that the resulting perturbations in the gravimetric factors are less than 0.6%.However,the loading effects of the local atmosphere on either the tidal or nontidal gravity observations are significant,although no seasonal variations were found.After removal of the atmospheric effects,the standard deviation of the SG observations in Lhasa decreased obviously from 2.009 to 0.459 nm s-2.Having removed the loading effects of oceanic tides and local atmosphere,it was found that the tidal gravity observations made with the SG in Lhasa significantly differed by about 1% from those expected theoretically,which may be related to active tectonic movement and the extremely thick crust in the region of the Tibetan Plateau.A more-certain conclusion requires longer accumulation of SG data and further associated theoretical studies.     

Behavior of gravity waves with limited amplitude in the vicinity of critical layer

By using the FICE scheme, a numerical simulation of three-dimensional nonlinear propagation of gravity wave packet in a wind-stratified atmosphere is presented. The whole nonlinear propagation process of the gravity wave packet is shown; the propagation behavior of gravity waves in the vicinity of critical layer is analyzed. The results show that gravity waves encounter the critical layer when propagating in the fair winds whose velocities increase with height, and the height of critical layer propagating nonlinearly is lower than that expected by the linear gravity waves theory; the amplitudes of gravity waves increase with height as a whole before gravity waves encounter the critical layer, but the increasing extent is smaller than the result given by the linear theory of gravity waves, while the amplitudes of gravity waves reduce when gravity waves meet the critical layer; the energy of wave decreases with height, especially at the critical layer; the vertical wavelength reduces with the height increasing, but it does not become zero.     

海洋内波破碎及其能量耗散的研究进展

海洋内波是海洋中普遍存在的波动形式。它的不稳定和破碎会对海洋能量的再分配产生本质的影响,直接将能量从大尺度向小尺度过程传递,产生湍流混合。内波破碎产生的湍流混合又会显著地影响海洋环境。该文就近十五年来对内波的破碎机制以及内波破碎导致的能量耗散研究作一简要综述。     

Improved estimates of global ocean circulation, heat transport and mixing from hydrographic data

Through its ability to transport large amounts of heat, fresh water and nutrients, the ocean is an essential regulator of climate. The pathways and mechanisms of this transport and its stability are critical issues in understanding the present state of climate and the possibilities of future changes. Recently, global high-quality hydrographic data have been gathered in the World Ocean Circulation Experiment (WOCE), to obtain an accurate picture of the present circulation. Here we combine the new data from high-resolution trans-oceanic sections and current meters with climatological wind fields, biogeochemical balances and improved a priori error estimates in an inverse model, to improve estimates of the global circulation and heat fluxes. Our solution resolves globally vertical mixing across surfaces of equal density, with coefficients in the range (3-12) x 10(-4) m2 s(-1). Net deep-water production rates amount to (15 +/- 12) x 10(6) m3 s(-1) in the North Atlantic Ocean and (21 +/- 6) x 10(6) m3 s(-1) in the Southern Ocean. Our estimates provide a new reference state for future climate studies with rigorous estimates of the uncertainties.     

Comprehensive comparison and analysis of the tidal gravity observations obtained with superconducting gravimeters at stations in China, Belgium and France

The long-term tidal gravity observations of about 27 a obtained with superconducting gravimeters (SG) at stations in Wuhan (China), Brussels (Belgium) and Strasbourg (France) are analyzed comprehensively. The quality factors of these observations at various stations are obtained and the tidal parameters are determined accurately. The efficiency when using various procedures on improving accuracy of the tidal parameters is discussed. The loading corrections on tidal parameters are carried out based on the global ocean tidal models. The correlations between the observed residuals and air pressure change are studied, the atmospheric gravity admittances in both temporal and frequency domains are determined, and the possible reasons of inducing the discrepancy between the observed tidal parameters and those in the standard tidal models are studied.     

Reduced mixing from the breaking of internal waves in equatorial waters

In the oceans, heat, salt and nutrients are redistributed much more easily within water masses of uniform density than across surfaces separating waters of different densities. But the magnitude and distribution of mixing across density surfaces are also important for the Earth's climate as well as the concentrations of organisms. Most of this mixing occurs where internal waves break, overturning the density stratification of the ocean and creating patches of turbulence. Predictions of the rate at which internal waves dissipate were confirmed earlier at mid-latitudes. Here we present observations of temperature and velocity fluctuations in the Pacific and Atlantic oceans between 42 degrees N and 2 degrees S to extend that result to equatorial regions. We find a strong latitude dependence of dissipation in accordance with the predictions. In our observations, dissipation rates and accompanying mixing across density surfaces near the Equator are less than 10% of those at mid-latitudes for a similar background of internal waves. Reduced mixing close to the Equator will have to be taken into account in numerical simulations of ocean dynamics--for example, in climate change experiments.     

Detection of the special gravity signals in sub-tidal band by using wavelet technique

With the rapid increase of the requirements to geo-dynamics of the Earth’s deep interior in global basic sciences and space techniques, the theoretical study and experimental detection of the geodynamic phenomena in Earth’s liquid core (ELC) and Earth’…     

Oceanography. Vertical mixing in the ocean

The thermohaline circulation of the ocean results primarily from downwelling at sites in the Nordic and Labrador Seas and upwelling throughout the rest of the ocean. The latter is often described as being due to breaking internal waves. Here we reconcile the difference between theoretical and observed estimates of vertical mixing in the deep ocean by presenting a revised view of the thermohaline circulation, which allows for additional upwelling in the Southern Ocean and the separation of the North Atlantic Deep Water cell from the Antarctic Bottom Water cell. The changes also mean that much less wind and tidal energy needs to be dissipated in the deep ocean than was originally thought.     

Linear theory of the response of Na mixing ratio to gravity waves

The influence of gravity waves on the sodium layer is studied by using a linear photochemical-dynamical coupling gravity wave model. The model includes the back-ground photochemistry and the photochemical reactions in the sodium layer. The amplitude and phase difference of the response of sodium mixing ratio to gravity waves are calculated. The results indicate that the lower part of sodium layer is the most sensitive region responding to gravity waves. The perturbation of sodium mixing ratio is in phase with temperature in the lower part of the layer. However, it is out of phase with temperature fluctuation in the upper part.     

引力理论和引力速度测量

引力是最早被认识的物理相互作用,它由Newton经典理论和Einstein的广义相对论描述。相对论包括狭义的( SR)和广义的( GR),其中空间和时间是一体化的,而GR也被称为几何动力学。在Newton理论中引力速度是无限大,而在Einstein理论中引力速度是光速。 GR认为引力与电磁力不同,是弯曲时空的纯几何效应。 GR还预言存在引力波,但即使经历了近百年的实验和寻找,它仍然只是物理学家头脑中的想象。本文认为空间、时间是物理学中的独立概念,所谓空时(或时空)在自然界并不存在,没有实在性。所谓空时(或时空)无法测量,故无科学意义。所谓“时间弯曲”更是无意义的不通的表述。在引力理论中,Newton平方反比定律( ISL)非常重要,而且极为精确。 Newton理论中引力首先是力,抓住了事物的本质。很久以前许多著名科学家就知道引力传播速度比光速大很多( vG ?c ),他们是I. Newton,P. Laplace, R. L?mmel,M. Born,A. Eddington,T. Flandern等;他们普遍认为引力如以有限速度(光速c )传播,绕日运动的行星由于扭矩作用将不稳定。1805年Laplace根据月球运动分析认为引力速度vG ≥7×106 c。人们考虑了不同的引力理论模型,例如把引力当作平坦时空中的力作用,从而研究得出引力速度大于2×1010 c———Flandern根据双星轨道计算得出此值。上述多个结果均与所谓引力波无关。电磁学中也有类似现象,当计算电荷产生的静电场,或天线近区的静态场,结合实验竟发现Coulomb场传播速度可为超光速, vs =(1.01~10) c。由于Coulomb场也是ISL,其结果与引力传播相似。虫洞和曲相推进完全是GR理论的产物,建基于时空一体化和弯曲时空的理念。虽然人人都知道SR断言“不可能有超光速运动”,但GR在实际上却否定了这一说法,表明相对论内部有不自洽性。但这些研究都断言需要有能量为负的奇异物质,证明加强对负能量研究是重要的。本文最后把引力传播、静态Coulomb场传播、量子纠缠态( QES)传播三者作比较,它们都存在超光速现象。虽然我们无法指出造成这些现象的原因,但却能找出现象的规律,并为自然界的奇妙感到惊奇。     

建筑物对爆炸地震波传播的影响

爆炸地震波传播会受环境介质等因素的影响,从厂房防护和炸药储存安全距离方面考虑,了解建筑物对爆炸地震波传播造成的影响很有必要。通过建立钢筋混凝土厂房模型,在模型外部及内部进行爆炸试验并测得相应的地震波信号,对其峰值速度拟合以及采用小波包变换的分析方法,研究建筑结构对地震波传播峰值速度和振动频率的影响。由于建筑结构的存在,改变了地震波传播的环境介质,使其峰值速度产生了较大的衰减,频率中高频成分所含能量减少。研究补充了建筑结构对爆炸地震波传播造成的影响,为炸药生产厂房及储存仓库安全距离的判定提供了参考依据。     

炸药性能对地震波品质影响的Hilbert-Huang变换分析

为检测爆炸地震波的品质(能量,主频),探寻激发高能量、高频率地震波的炸药震源,选用梯恩梯(TNT)、梯铝(TL)、8701,黑火药(BP)进行浅埋土中爆炸试验. 并利用Hilbert-Huang变换(HHT)对距离震源10～65 m处地面振动速度信号进行分析,结果表明:高能量高爆速炸药8701震源激发的地震波能量大,但频带较窄,主频较低,高频率段能量随传播距离衰减较快;低能量低爆速炸药BP激发的地震波频带较宽,主频也较高,但地震波能量过低;含铝炸药TL激发的地震波能量大,且随传播距离衰减速度较慢,主频介于黑火药BP与炸药8701之间.      

The worldwide leaf economics spectrum

Bringing together leaf trait data spanning 2,548 species and 175 sites we describe, for the first time at global scale, a universal spectrum of leaf economics consisting of key chemical, structural and physiological properties. The spectrum runs from quick to slow return on investments of nutrients and dry mass in leaves, and operates largely independently of growth form, plant functional type or biome. Categories along the spectrum would, in general, describe leaf economic variation at the global scale better than plant functional types, because functional types overlap substantially in their leaf traits. Overall, modulation of leaf traits and trait relationships by climate is surprisingly modest, although some striking and significant patterns can be seen. Reliable quantification of the leaf economics spectrum and its interaction with climate will prove valuable for modelling nutrient fluxes and vegetation boundaries under changing land-use and climate.     

长江口北支的涌潮及其对河口的影响

根据限产踏勘，实测并结合历史资料，阐述了长江口北支涌潮的发育，种类，形态和特点，并利用流体水跃现象的Froude 数判别，解释了涌潮成因。进一步研究表明，河槽束狭加大涨潮流速，河床淤浅则减缓潮波传速。北支在自然和人为的影响下，河槽不断束狭，河床逐渐淤浅是近年来涌潮发生次数增多，潮头增大的原因。随着涌潮潮头的推进，大量水沙上溯，这对北支和南支上段的滩，漕变化和河口环境有着深刻的影响。     

声波在非均匀介质波导中的传播

声波在非均匀介质波导中传播时传播特性将发生改变.渐变的温度分布或介质密度分布都将导致介质的非均匀,影响声波的传播速度和传播常数.求解理想条件下声波在非均匀介质中传播的赫姆霍兹方程,最终得到声压在波导中的分布.由于密度分布的复杂度直接影响赫姆霍兹方程的求解,仅研究波导内介质密度在声波传播方向上连续变化的情况.方程的解析解...     

Low-frequency waves in magnetic reconnection

The characteristics of low-frequency waves in magnetic reconnection are studied using two-dimensional hybrid simulation code. In a coordinate system moving with fluid,the time series of a magnetic field perpendicular to the magnetic reconnection plane,By, is transformed into the power spectrum via fast Fourier transformation,while the wave propagation direction and polarization are determined by minimum variance analysis of the electric field.The results show that low-frequency Alfvén ion-cyclotron waves dominate the reconnection area.These waves have frequencies 0-1Ωp(where Ωp is the local proton gyro frequency)and all are left-handed circularly polarized.Among these waves,large-amplitude turbulence,with frequencies of 0-0.6Ωp and isotropic propagation,dominates the outflow regions.This can cause the reversal of By in the quadrupole structure.In the inflow regions, dominant waves,propagating mainly parallel to the ambient magnetic field,have higher frequencies and smaller amplitudes.The frequency of the main peak of wave energy is usually higher than 0.5Ωp.