PART 2: Critical Systemic Praxis to Address Fixed and Fluid Identity and Politics<Superscript>1</Superscript> at the Local,National and International Level

This paper argues for a model of systemic governance that can take account of diverse identities and political positions (Deleuze and Guattari in Bogue, 1989). Participatory Action Research can assist in working with diverse viewpoints when managing and making policy decisions across many organizations locally, nationally and internationally. Understanding the point of view of ‘the other’ and the recursive nature of identity and politics is the first step towards sustainable governance. Enabling multiple viewpoints to be heard is both an idealistic and sustainable end and a means to manage risk. Accountability needs to ‘sweep in’ and ‘unfold’ (Churchman, 1979a,b, 1982) social, cultural, economic and environmental factors (adapting Elkington, 1997, drawing on Banathy, 1996, 2000; Laszlo, 1991; Laszlo, and Laszlo, 2004). Participatory governance needs to address questions about fixed and fluid politics and identity. These questions address cultural norms, bonds and boundaries (Elias and Lichterman, 2003) to guide reflection on cases that strive to achieve accountability. Experiential learning through participatory action research with the most marginalised in society and listening to significant others (whose systemic praxis) is the basis for the theory on systemic governance.¹Paper is drawn from forthcoming book entitled: “Systemic Governance: Working and re-working the conceptual and geographical boundaries of governance and international relations” (2005) and parts of the paper were presented at the 49th Annual Conference of the International Systems Sciences Asilomar 2004. A more detailed version of the case study on the hijab has been submitted for consideration as a publication on human rights and governance to Systems Research and Behavioural Science October 2004. References to Churchman’s work have also been made in Critical Systemic Praxis for Social and Environmental Justice (2003)Kluwer.     

Churchman and Maturana: Enriching the Notion of Self-Organization for Social Design

C. West Churchman and Humberto Maturana share similar cultural traditions involving frustrations with applying conventional systematic methods in domains of social systems design (Churchman) and neurobiology (Maturana). They have independently of each other developed a rich systemic framework of analysis based on a constructivist epistemology. But there appears to have been little correspondence between the two traditions. This paper explores six possible areas of congruence between the critical systemic perspective associated with Churchman and Maturanas autopoiesis. This initial sketch reveals possible ways forward in applying ideas of autopoiesis to our social world through a more constructive and adaptive conversation with the works of Churchman.     

Toward Critical Intervention in Small and Medium—Sized Enterprises: A Case Study

The mainstream systems literature has so far paid little systematic attention to the small business arena, despite this being potentially a very significant sector for the systems community, given its importance in the UK economy. Small, growing enterprises experience particular managerial problems. This paper provides an example of the practical benefits of a systems approach in a small company experiencing growth. It examines the process of an intervention which took place over a 2-year period in a small manufacturing company as part of the UK government's Teaching Company Scheme. An attempt to extend critical systems thinking into the small company environment is discussed, identifying the challenges and opportunities presented by the setting to researchers. The paper draws on Habermas' theory of communicative action to explore the extent to which the intervention was inclusive and critically reflective. Strategies adopted to support inclusive practice are explored and general lessons are drawn out.     

供应链中社会资本、不确定性与机会主义行为关系的实证研究

供应链中普遍存在机会主义行为风险，而关于此类研究成果主要基于交易成本理论而缺乏对供应链中的社会关系的考量。深入分析了社会资本的结构、认知和关系维度的内在关系，给出了社会资本抑制机会主义行为的作用路径。建立了社会资本-不确定性-机会主义行为的结构方程模型，通过采集制造业、石油化工业等不同行业的300份供应链成员有效问卷对模型假设进行检验。研究结果表明：社会资本结构维度中信息交换对认知维度中的文化理解与过程集成均有显著正向相关性，文化理解与关系维度中的信任与合作规范均有显著正向相关性，过程集成与关系维度中的信任有显著负相关性、与合作规范呈现显著正相关性。认知维度中文化理解与供应链成员内部不确定性显著负相关，关系维度中信任与供应链成员行为不确定性显著负相关，而供应链中不确定性显著提升其机会行为发生的可能性。     

Science as Systemic Intervention: Some Implications of Systems Thinking and Complexity for the Philosophy of Science

This paper sidesteps the usual starting points for debate about complexity and the philosophy of science, which tend to assume that science is primarily about observation. Instead, the starting point is intervention, defined as purposeful action by an agent to create change. While some authors suggest that intervention and observation are opposites, it is argued here that observation (as undertaken in science) should be viewed as just one type of intervention. We should therefore welcome scientific techniques of observation into a pluralistic set of intervention methods, alongside methods for exploring values, reflecting on subjective understandings, planning future activities, etc. However, there is a need to explicitly counter a possible pernicious interpretation of this argument: intervention could (erroneously) be viewed as flawlessly preplanned change based on accurate predictions of the consequences of action. This is the mechanistic worldview that systems thinking and complexity science seek to challenge. Therefore, having redefined scientific observation as intervention, the paper revisits insights from systems thinking and complexity to propose a methodology of systemic intervention. Some brief reflections are then provided on the wider social implications of this methodology.     

Action Research for Emancipation Informed by Habermas and Hierarchy of Systems: Case Study on Environmental Education and Management of Water Resources in Brazil

Technology is used in order to emancipate. Emancipation for social and environmental justice ought to shape the way technology is designed and used. The relationships across action research, action research spiral, and the General Systems Theory was investigated. The case study refers to environmental education activities as part of a participative management approach to water resources on the Hydrographic Basin of the Upper Maranhão River (Brazil). By introducing action research spiral as a search of rationality in social practices, and describing the nature of lower and higher hierarchical level in General Systems Theory, the higher hierarchical level was associated with Habermasian emancipatory interest, whereas lower hierarchic levels were associated with the specific instrumental concern. To conclude, it is said that the articulation between action research spiral and General System Theory can be the means to strengthen the dialectical potential of the action research spiral in order to achieve both individual and collective empowerment.     

处理环境效应和随机误差的创新驱动发展绩效时空异质研究——以高技术产业为例

基于2009~2015年高技术产业省际面板数据,首次纳入高技术产业创新驱动的环境效应和随机误差考虑,利用SFA模型进行分解修正调整样本投入的偏移量,进一步结合超效率技术改进,更为有效真实地反映高技术产业创新驱动发展成效及其时空异质和来源体系配置特征。研究发现,环境因素对高技术产业创新驱动发展绩效产生显著异质影响。总体上,调整后2009~2015年高技术产业的创新驱动整体效率还处于相对较低水平,存在较大发展空间。纯技术效率改进显著优于规模效率,是其创新驱动发展绩效提升的主要动力来源。高技术产业创新驱动发展绩效时间上呈现一定程度的增长,而空间差异显著,亟待进行引领产业创新驱动结构转型。