P2X receptors as cell-surface ATP sensors in health and disease

P2X receptors are membrane ion channels activated by the binding of extracellular adenosine triphosphate (ATP). For years their functional significance was consigned to distant regions of the autonomic nervous system, but recent work indicates several further key roles, such as afferent signalling, chronic pain, and in autocrine loops of endothelial and epithelial cells. P2X receptors have a molecular architecture distinct from other ion channel protein families, and have several unique functional properties.     

Warm-coding deficits and aberrant inflammatory pain in mice lacking P2X3 receptors

ATP activates damage-sensing neurons (nociceptors) and can evoke a sensation of pain. The ATP receptor P2X3 is selectively expressed by nociceptors and is one of seven ATP-gated, cation-selective ion channels. Here we demonstrate that ablation of the P2X3 gene results in the loss of rapidly desensitizing ATP-gated cation currents in dorsal root ganglion neurons, and that the responses of nodose ganglion neurons to ATP show altered kinetics and pharmacology resulting from the loss of expression of P2X(2/3) heteromultimers. Null mutants have normal sensorimotor function. Behavioural responses to noxious mechanical and thermal stimuli are also normal, although formalin-induced pain behaviour is reduced. In contrast, deletion of the P2X3 receptor causes enhanced thermal hyperalgesia in chronic inflammation. Notably, although dorsal-horn neuronal responses to mechanical and noxious heat application are normal, P2X3-null mice are unable to code the intensity of non-noxious 'warming' stimuli.     

Reduced vas deferens contraction and male infertility in mice lacking P2X1 receptors

P2X1 receptors for ATP are ligand-gated cation channels, present on many excitable cells including vas deferens smooth muscle cells. A substantial component of the contractile response of the vas deferens to sympathetic nerve stimulation, which propels sperm into the ejaculate, is mediated through P2X receptors. Here we show that male fertility is reduced by approximately 90% in mice with a targeted deletion of the P2X1 receptor gene. Male mice copulate normally--reduced fertility results from a reduction of sperm in the ejaculate and not from sperm dysfunction. Female mice and heterozygote mice are unaffected. In P2X1-receptor-deficient mice, contraction of the vas deferens to sympathetic nerve stimulation is reduced by up to 60% and responses to P2X receptor agonists are abolished. These results show that P2X1 receptors are essential for normal male reproductive function and suggest that the development of selective P2X1 receptor antagonists may provide an effective non-hormonal male contraceptive pill. Also, agents that potentiate the actions of ATP at P2X1 receptors may be useful in the treatment of male infertility.     

P2X4 receptors induced in spinal microglia gate tactile allodynia after nerve injury

Pain after nerve damage is an expression of pathological operation of the nervous system, one hallmark of which is tactile allodynia-pain hypersensitivity evoked by innocuous stimuli. Effective therapy for this pain is lacking, and the underlying mechanisms are poorly understood. Here we report that pharmacological blockade of spinal P2X4 receptors (P2X4Rs), a subtype of ionotropic ATP receptor, reversed tactile allodynia caused by peripheral nerve injury without affecting acute pain behaviours in naive animals. After nerve injury, P2X4R expression increased strikingly in the ipsilateral spinal cord, and P2X4Rs were induced in hyperactive microglia but not in neurons or astrocytes. Intraspinal administration of P2X4R antisense oligodeoxynucleotide decreased the induction of P2X4Rs and suppressed tactile allodynia after nerve injury. Conversely, intraspinal administration of microglia in which P2X4Rs had been induced and stimulated, produced tactile allodynia in naive rats. Taken together, our results demonstrate that activation of P2X4Rs in hyperactive microglia is necessary for tactile allodynia after nerve injury and is sufficient to produce tactile allodynia in normal animals. Thus, blocking P2X4Rs in microglia might be a new therapeutic strategy for pain induced by nerve injury.     

Coupling of agonist binding to channel gating in an ACh-binding protein linked to an ion channel

Neurotransmitter receptors from the Cys-loop superfamily couple the binding of agonist to the opening of an intrinsic ion pore in the final step in rapid synaptic transmission. Although atomic resolution structural data have recently emerged for individual binding and pore domains, how they are linked into a functional unit remains unknown. Here we identify structural requirements for functionally coupling the two domains by combining acetylcholine (ACh)-binding protein, whose structure was determined at atomic resolution, with the pore domain from the serotonin type-3A (5-HT3A) receptor. Only when amino-acid sequences of three loops in ACh-binding protein are changed to their 5-HT3A counterparts does ACh bind with low affinity characteristic of activatable receptors, and trigger opening of the ion pore. Thus functional coupling requires structural compatibility at the interface of the binding and pore domains. Structural modelling reveals a network of interacting loops between binding and pore domains that mediates this allosteric coupling process.     

Principal pathway coupling agonist binding to channel gating in nicotinic receptors

Synaptic receptors respond to neurotransmitters by opening an intrinsic ion channel in the final step in synaptic transmission. How binding of the neurotransmitter is conveyed over the long distance to the channel remains a central question in neurobiology. Here we delineate a principal pathway that links neurotransmitter binding to channel gating by using a structural model of the Torpedo acetylcholine receptor at 4-A resolution, recordings of currents through single receptor channels and determinations of energetic coupling between pairs of residues. We show that a pair of invariant arginine and glutamate residues in each receptor alpha-subunit electrostatically links peripheral and inner beta-sheets from the binding domain and positions them to engage with the channel. The key glutamate and flanking valine residues energetically couple to conserved proline and serine residues emerging from the top of the channel-forming alpha-helix, suggesting that this is the point at which the binding domain triggers opening of the channel. The series of interresidue couplings identified here constitutes a primary allosteric pathway that links neurotransmitter binding to channel gating.     

社会化P2P网络中恶意行为预防机制

在分布式信誉网络测试环境ResourceDog的基础上,引入平衡用户投票的纠偏算法和用户投票行为特征提取算法,拟解决分布式社会化网络中由个人偏好引起的评价偏差、伪装并在特定时期连续做恶、大量用户协同共谋攻击特定资源等问题.实验表明:引入的相关算法进一步规范了社会化网络中用户投票行为,并能够为异常的用户行为或资源结点进行预警,控制网络中的恶意或滥用行为.     

P2P文件共享框架中激励机制的研究

传统的Peer-to-Peer（P2P）网络都假设每个用户能积极共享自己的资源，这导致了大量免费搭车者（Free rider）的出现。提出了一种基于节点贡献大小的接纳控制和资源分配结合使用的激励策略。为网络做出较多贡献的节点能得到相应的回报，因此可以预期整个网络的性能将得到极大提高。     

P2P文件共享框架中激励机制的研究

传统的Peer-to-Peer（P2P）网络都假设每个用户能积极共享自己的资源,这导致了大量免费搭车者（Free rider）的出现。提出了一种基于节点贡献大小的接纳控制和资源分配结合使用的激励策略。为网络做出较多贡献 的节点能得到相应的回报,因此可以预期整个网络的性能将得到极大提高。     

Molecular identification of the CRAC channel by altered ion selectivity in a mutant of Orai

Recent RNA interference screens have identified several proteins that are essential for store-operated Ca2+ influx and Ca2+ release-activated Ca2+ (CRAC) channel activity in Drosophila and in mammals, including the transmembrane proteins Stim (stromal interaction molecule) and Orai. Stim probably functions as a sensor of luminal Ca2+ content and triggers activation of CRAC channels in the surface membrane after Ca2+ store depletion. Among three human homologues of Orai (also known as olf186-F), ORAI1 on chromosome 12 was found to be mutated in patients with severe combined immunodeficiency disease, and expression of wild-type Orai1 restored Ca2+ influx and CRAC channel activity in patient T cells. The overexpression of Stim and Orai together markedly increases CRAC current. However, it is not yet clear whether Stim or Orai actually forms the CRAC channel, or whether their expression simply limits CRAC channel activity mediated by a different channel-forming subunit. Here we show that interaction between wild-type Stim and Orai, assessed by co-immunoprecipitation, is greatly enhanced after treatment with thapsigargin to induce Ca2+ store depletion. By site-directed mutagenesis, we show that a point mutation from glutamate to aspartate at position 180 in the conserved S1-S2 loop of Orai transforms the ion selectivity properties of CRAC current from being Ca2+-selective with inward rectification to being selective for monovalent cations and outwardly rectifying. A charge-neutralizing mutation at the same position (glutamate to alanine) acts as a dominant-negative non-conducting subunit. Other charge-neutralizing mutants in the same loop express large inwardly rectifying CRAC current, and two of these exhibit reduced sensitivity to the channel blocker Gd3+. These results indicate that Orai itself forms the Ca2+-selectivity filter of the CRAC channel.     

ATP对胞内钙信号的调控机制研究

以大鼠胰腺β细胞和INS-1β细胞系为研究对象,采用显微荧光测钙技术,研究了胞外ATP对胞内Ca^2＋信号的影响,初步探讨了其作用机制．实验表明：胞外ATP能够分别使大鼠胰腺β细胞和INS-1细胞内的游离Ca^2＋浓度显著升高,但2种细胞的钙信号来源不同．在大鼠胰腺β细胞中,胞外ATP主要通过动员胞内钙库释放而引起胞浆内Ca^2＋浓度显著增高;而在INS-1细胞内,胞外ATP主要通过引起胞外Ca^2＋内流而引起胞浆内Ca^2＋浓度增加．     

混合P2P网络资源搜索机制研究

提出一种基于混合P2P网络的资源搜索机制,将基于结构化P2P网络的搜索算法和基于超级节点的搜索算法有机结合在一起,并探讨了簇中超级节点失效的应对策略.实验结果表明,该算法能有效提高资源搜索的有效性和准确率.     

A membrane-access mechanism of ion channel inhibition by voltage sensor toxins from spider venom

Venomous animals produce small protein toxins that inhibit ion channels with high affinity. In several well-studied cases the inhibitory proteins are water-soluble and bind at a channel's aqueous-exposed extracellular surface. Here we show that a voltage-sensor toxin (VSTX1) from the Chilean Rose Tarantula (Grammostola spatulata) reaches its target by partitioning into the lipid membrane. Lipid membrane partitioning serves two purposes: to localize the toxin in the membrane where the voltage sensor resides and to exploit the free energy of partitioning to achieve apparent high-affinity inhibition. VSTX1, small hydrophobic poisons and anaesthetic molecules reveal a common theme of voltage sensor inhibition through lipid membrane access. The apparent requirement for such access is consistent with the recent proposal that the sensor in voltage-dependent K+ channels is located at the membrane-protein interface.     

A novel receptor-operated Ca2+-permeable channel activated by ATP in smooth muscle

Receptor-operated Ca2+ entry has been proposed as a signalling mechanism in many cells. Receptor-operated Ca2+ channels (ROCs) were first postulated in smooth muscle by Bolton, van Breemen and Somlyo and Somlyo, but recordings of directly ligand-gated Ca2+ current are lacking. Here we describe receptor-operated Ca2+ current evoked in arterial smooth muscle cells by ATP, a sympathetic neurotransmitter. ATP activates channels with approximately 3:1 selectivity for Ca2+ over Na+ at near-physiological concentrations and with a unitary conductance of approximately 5 pS in 110 mM Ca2+ or Ba2+. The channels can be opened even at very negative potentials and resist inhibition by cadmium or nifedipine, unlike voltage-gated Ca2+ channels; they are not blocked by Mg2+, unlike NMDA (N-methyl-D-aspartate)-activated channels; they are directly activated by ligand, without involvement of readily diffusible second messengers, unlike cation channels in neutrophils and T lymphocytes. Thus, the ATP-activated channels provide a distinct mechanism for excitatory synaptic current and Ca2+ entry in smooth muscle.     

基于P2P结构的无线网格资源发现机制

针对无线网络的特殊环境,提出了一种基于P2P结构的无线网格资源发现机制,该机制结合了分布式与集中式网格资源发现的优点,引入了超级节点的概念,通过超级节点管理域内用户,将资源信息存放在超级节点中,避免了中央节点聚合目录的更新.并在此机制基础上给出了一个无线网格信息服务架构,满足了无线网格资源发现的分散性和可扩展性的特点.理论分析和实验证明能够提高无线网格资源发现效率.     

分子动力学模拟三氯生对烯脂酰-ACP还原酶作用机制研究

本文利用分子动力学模拟分别研究了蛋白sa Fab I体系、sa Fab I-NADP+体系和sa Fab I-NADP+-TCL体系的稳定性、各氨基酸残基随模拟时间的波动情况以及活性位点处关键氨基酸残基构象的变化规律.研究表明,辅酶NADP+及抑制剂三氯生均可在不同程度上促使蛋白构象稳定.辅酶NADP+可以促使活性位点Loop区残基Y147-Y157残基构象变为规则的卷曲构象;抑制剂三氯生可以促使蛋白与底物结合位点Loop I区残基I94-E108和Loop II区残基R194-F204及活性位点Loop区残基Y147-Y157残基构象变为规则的卷曲构象,构象趋于稳定.上述研究发现对认识三氯生作为抗菌药物机制及相关药物设计具有重要指导意义.     

Relating ligand binding to activation gating in CNGA2 channels

Cyclic nucleotide-gated (CNG) ion channels mediate sensory signal transduction in photoreceptors and olfactory cells. Structurally, CNG channels are heterotetramers composed of either two or three homologue subunits. Although it is well established that activation is a cooperative process of these subunits, it remains unknown whether the cooperativity is generated by the ligand binding, the gating, or both, and how the subunits interact. In this study, the action of homotetrameric olfactory-type CNGA2 channels was studied in inside-out membrane patches by simultaneously determining channel activation and ligand binding, using the fluorescent cGMP analogue 8-DY547-cGMP as the ligand. At concentrations of 8-DY547-cGMP < 1 microM, steady-state binding was larger than steady-state activation, whereas at higher concentrations it was smaller, generating a crossover of the steady-state relationships. Global analysis of these relationships together with multiple activation time courses following cGMP jumps showed that four ligands bind to the channels and that there is significant interaction between the binding sites. Among the binding steps, the second is most critical for channel opening: its association constant is three orders of magnitude smaller than the others and it triggers a switch from a mostly closed to a maximally open state. These results contribute to unravelling the role of the subunits in the cooperative mechanism of CNGA2 channel activation and could be of general relevance for the action of other ion channels and receptors.     

P2P环境中基于信号博弈论的资源定价机制

针对对等(P2P)网络系统资源交易中的信息不对称性问题,提出了基于信号博弈论的资源定价机制.用信号传递模型削弱信息不对称性,使得资源需求者可以辨识资源的质量,同时通过调价机制调整资源的价格.仿真试验表明,本文的定价机制可以有效的区分资源质量,最终资源的价格与其实际质量相一致,因此资源需求者可以辨识资源的质量从而愿意合理付费,繁荣了资源市场.