The impact of humidity above stratiform clouds on indirect aerosol climate forcing

Some of the global warming from anthropogenic greenhouse gases is offset by increased reflection of solar radiation by clouds with smaller droplets that form in air polluted with aerosol particles that serve as cloud condensation nuclei. The resulting cooling tendency, termed the indirect aerosol forcing, is thought to be comparable in magnitude to the forcing by anthropogenic CO2, but it is difficult to estimate because the physical processes that determine global aerosol and cloud populations are poorly understood. Smaller cloud droplets not only reflect sunlight more effectively, but also inhibit precipitation, which is expected to result in increased cloud water. Such an increase in cloud water would result in even more reflective clouds, further increasing the indirect forcing. Marine boundary-layer clouds polluted by aerosol particles, however, are not generally observed to hold more water. Here we simulate stratocumulus clouds with a fluid dynamics model that includes detailed treatments of cloud microphysics and radiative transfer. Our simulations show that the response of cloud water to suppression of precipitation from increased droplet concentrations is determined by a competition between moistening from decreased surface precipitation and drying from increased entrainment of overlying air. Only when the overlying air is humid or droplet concentrations are very low does sufficient precipitation reach the surface to allow cloud water to increase with droplet concentrations. Otherwise, the response of cloud water to aerosol-induced suppression of precipitation is dominated by enhanced entrainment of overlying dry air. In this scenario, cloud water is reduced as droplet concentrations increase, which diminishes the indirect climate forcing.     

基于CMIP5全球气候模式的中国典型区域干湿变化分析

基于CMIP5多全球气候模式数值模拟结果,包括空间分辨率0.5°的逐月历史气候数据和RCP2.6、RCP4.5、RCP8.5情景下未来气候变化预估数据,利用潜在蒸散发和降水量构建能够表征地表干湿状况的湿润指数,对中国东部季风区7个典型区1901—2100年干湿变化趋势进行了模拟和分析.结果表明:各分区在1901—2005年湿润指数均呈现下降趋势,其中珠江、长江、淮河流域变化较为平缓,黄河、海河流域和东北地区波动较大.可见在过去的100多年中,东部季风区整体上呈现不同程度的干旱化.在2006—2100年不同温室气体排放情景下,各分区的湿润指数呈现不同程度的波动,除了黄河上游地区湿润指数呈现增长趋势外,其他区域没有明显的变湿趋势.     

The formation of cubic ice under conditions relevant to Earth's atmosphere

An important mechanism for ice cloud formation in the Earth's atmosphere is homogeneous nucleation of ice in aqueous droplets, and this process is generally assumed to produce hexagonal ice. However, there are some reports that the metastable crystalline phase of ice, cubic ice, may form in the Earth's atmosphere. Here we present laboratory experiments demonstrating that cubic ice forms when micrometre-sized droplets of pure water and aqueous solutions freeze homogeneously at cooling rates approaching those found in the atmosphere. We find that the formation of cubic ice is dominant when droplets freeze at temperatures below 190 K, which is in the temperature range relevant for polar stratospheric clouds and clouds in the tropical tropopause region. These results, together with heat transfer calculations, suggest that cubic ice will form in the Earth's atmosphere. If there were a significant fraction of cubic ice in some cold clouds this could increase their water vapour pressure, and modify their microphysics and ice particle size distributions. Under specific conditions this may lead to enhanced dehydration of the tropopause region.     

Polar methane accumulation and rainstorms on Titan from simulations of the methane cycle

Titan has a methane cycle akin to Earth's water cycle. It has lakes in polar regions, preferentially in the north; dry low latitudes with fluvial features and occasional rainstorms; and tropospheric clouds mainly (so far) in southern middle latitudes and polar regions. Previous models have explained the low-latitude dryness as a result of atmospheric methane transport into middle and high latitudes. Hitherto, no model has explained why lakes are found only in polar regions and preferentially in the north; how low-latitude rainstorms arise; or why clouds cluster in southern middle and high latitudes. Here we report simulations with a three-dimensional atmospheric model coupled to a dynamic surface reservoir of methane. We find that methane is cold-trapped and accumulates in polar regions, preferentially in the north because the northern summer, at aphelion, is longer and has greater net precipitation than the southern summer. The net precipitation in polar regions is balanced in the annual mean by slow along-surface methane transport towards mid-latitudes, and subsequent evaporation. In low latitudes, rare but intense storms occur around the equinoxes, producing enough precipitation to carve surface features. Tropospheric clouds form primarily in middle and high latitudes of the summer hemisphere, which until recently has been the southern hemisphere. We predict that in the northern polar region, prominent clouds will form within about two (Earth) years and lake levels will rise over the next fifteen years.     

Preliminary study on the living environment of hominids at the Donggutuo site, Nihewan Basin

The Donggutuo site, situated in the east margin of Nihewan basin, is one of the most important Paleolithic sites in China, characterized by the longest excavation seasons and the most abundant cultural remains recovered in the region. Based on well-constructed sporopollen, sediment grain size analysis, magnetic susceptibility, and iron oxide analysis of the 2000--2001 excavated section, four stages of environmental change in the Nihewan Beds are identified by the authors. The results indicate four major stages of environment and climate change from 1） warm and humid forest grass to 2） temperate and humid forest grass to 3） temperate and dry forest grass to 4） warm and humid forest, which is suitable for hominid occupation. The changes correspond to the stages of lake transgression and regression. The environment after the lake died out away has been cold and dry boschveld. The hominid activities at the site took place in the Early Pleistocene （1.10 Ma）, which corresponds to the early three environmental stages. Therefore, it can be inferred that the early hominids adapted to the relatively low lake level episodes through activities involving sporadic stone tool making, procuring of raw materials for tools, concentrating stone artifacts, and hunting and butchering. In conclusion, the results will be of great significance to research regarding the relationship between hominid occupation and environmental changes as well as the adaptive behaviors of early humans at the Donggutuo site.     

Environmental changes during early-middle Holocene from the sediment record of the Chaohu Lake,Anhui Province

A typical lake sediment core is obtained from the Chaohu Lake in the lower reaches of the Yangtze River,Anhui Province,China.The timing scale is constrained by AMS 14 C dating method.Climate proxies such as pollen and grain size in the core are analyzed to reconstruct the environment changes at this site approximately between 9870 and 2170 cal.a BP.The results indicate that at the research area, the climate in the early-middle Holocene had evolved through 3 stages.From 9870 to 6040 cal.a BP, proxy records show a warm and dry climate with low water levels after the late-glacial period.During this stage,cool and dry events occurred at about 8910 and 6060-6030 cal.a BP.Then,between 6040 and 4860 cal.a BP,the climate was humid and vegetation was more flourishing in the Chaohu Lake Valley.The Holocene Optimum occurred at 5840-5500 cal.a BP in the Chaohu Lake,showing the best condition of water and heat.Elm Decline occurred at the period of 5380-4930 cal.a BP.Since 4860 cal.a BP,the climate was warm and dry through 2170 cal.a BP as shown in both pollen spectrum and grain-size histories.Two obvious dry events occurred in 3760 and 2170 cal.a BP,respectively.At 2170 cal.a BP,the water level of the Chaohu Lake reached the lowest as the lakebed possibly exposed. Such lake sediment observations are consistent with the historical records in this area.     

水玻璃粘结剂的固化和粉化机理研究

以沙子为骨料,水玻璃作为黏结剂,三氯化铝作为固化剂,制备成大尺寸多孔沙砖,研究水玻璃黏结剂的固化机理和粉化机理。通过采用红外和X射线衍射仪测试在不同环境和不同固化时间黏结剂的结构变化和官能团变化,发现水玻璃凝胶在干燥环境不断脱水,其中的Si—O—Al键含量随时间延长而增加,形成稳定的网状交联结构;在潮湿环境,受到羟基作用使Si—O—Al键断裂而导致黏结剂粉化。     

A modeling study of relation between cloud amount and SST over western tropical pacific cloudy regions during TOGA COARE

The relationship between cloud amount and sea surface temperature (SST) over western tropical Pacific cloudy regions during TOGA COARE is investigated based on hourly grid simulation data from a two-dimensional coupled ocean-cloud resolving atmosphere model. The model is forced by the large-scale vertical velocity and zonal wind observed and derived from TOGA COARE for a 50-day period. The cloud amount becomes smaller when the ocean surface gets warmer, which is similar to previous relations obtained from observational analyses. As SST increases, the atmospheric temperature increases whereas the surface sensible heat flux decreases. The atmospheric water vapor is not sensitive to SST whereas the surface evaporation flux decreases as SST increases. These indicate that the oceanic effects do not play an important role in determining atmospheric heat and water vapor budgets. The cold atmosphere produces a larger amount of ice clouds that cover a larger area than the warm atmosphere does. The large amounts of ice clouds lead to cooling of the ocean surface through reflecting large amount of solar radiation back to the space. Thus, the negative correlation between the cloud amount and SST only accounts for the important atmospheric effects on the ocean.     

Heterogeneous chemistry in the atmosphere of Mars

Hydrogen radicals are produced in the martian atmosphere by the photolysis of water vapour and subsequently initiate catalytic cycles that recycle carbon dioxide from its photolysis product carbon monoxide. These processes provide a qualitative explanation for the stability of the atmosphere of Mars, which contains 95 per cent carbon dioxide. Balancing carbon dioxide production and loss based on our current understanding of the gas-phase chemistry in the martian atmosphere has, however, proven to be difficult. Interactions between gaseous chemical species and ice cloud particles have been shown to be key factors in the loss of polar ozone observed in the Earth's stratosphere, and may significantly perturb the chemistry of the Earth's upper troposphere. Water-ice clouds are also commonly observed in the atmosphere of Mars and it has been suggested previously that heterogeneous chemistry could have an important impact on the composition of the martian atmosphere. Here we use a state-of-the-art general circulation model together with new observations of the martian ozone layer to show that model simulations that include chemical reactions occurring on ice clouds lead to much improved quantitative agreement with observed martian ozone levels in comparison with model simulations based on gas-phase chemistry alone. Ozone is readily destroyed by hydrogen radicals and is therefore a sensitive tracer of the chemistry that regulates the atmosphere of Mars. Our results suggest that heterogeneous chemistry on ice clouds plays an important role in controlling the stability and composition of the martian atmosphere.     

利用微脉冲激光雷达识别过冷水云层

在已有的云识别算法基础上, 利用微脉冲激光雷达后向散射信号区分云和气溶胶。按照云粒子的退偏振比, 区分冰云、水云、混合云以及水平导向的冰晶云。结合大气温度廓线, 对过冷水云层进行有效的识别。利用观测点上空持续一年的观测资料, 统计各种云出现的高度及比例的逐月变化, 结果显示, 过冷水云出现的时间占有云时间的9.84%, 对于0~−40℃的云层, 过冷水云出现的时间占11.99%。     

Dusty cloud radiative forcing derived from satellite data for middle latitude regions of East Asia

The dusty cloud radiative forcing over the middle latitude regions of East Asia was estimated by using the 2-year (July 2002?June 2004) data of collocated clouds and the Earth’s radiant energy system (CERES) scanner and moderate resolution imaging spectroradiometer (MODIS) from Aqua Edition 1B SSF (single scanner footprint). The dusty cloud is defined as the cloud in dust storm environment or dust contaminated clouds. For clouds growing in the presence of dust, the instantaneous short-wave (SW) forcing at the top of the atmosphere (TOA) is about -275.7 W/m² for cloud over dust (COD) region. The clouds developing in no-dust cloud (CLD) regions yield the most negative short-wave (SW) forcing (-311.0 W/m²), which is about 12.8% stronger than those in COD regions. For long-wave (LW) radiative forcing, the no-dust cloud (CLD) is around 102.8 W/m², which is 20% less than the LW forcing from COD regions. The instantaneous TOA net radiative forcing for the CLD region is about -208.2 W/m², which is 42.1% larger than the values of COD regions. The existence of dust aerosols under clouds significantly reduces the cooling effect of clouds.     

The formation process and cloud physical characteristics for a typical downburstproducing thunderstorm in Beijing

The formation process and characteristics of cloud physical structure of a severe thunderstorm accompanied with strong wind on 23 August, 2001 in Beijing was studied using PSU/NCAR mesoscale model (MM5)coupling with a severe storm model with hail-bin microphysics. The results show that the specific topography and distribution features of cold/warm current in the Beijing region played prominent roles in forming, developing and maintaining the severe storm. Due to solar radiation heating and topographic lifting, the convective cells were easily formed when the westerly airflow passed over high mountainous regions in Beijing. The warm and wet air entered the cloud from its frontage and enhanced the convection, and formed a large amount of graupel/hail particles at the middle and upper portion of the clouds. The precipitation was primarily formed due to melting of graupel/hail particles. The strong downdraft was mainly produced by negative buoyancy due to loading,melting of graupel/hail particles as well as evaporative cooling of rain water. The divergent airflow induced by the strong downdraft led to the disastrous burst winds at the surface and also forced lifting of warm and wet airflow in the moving direction of the storm and formed new clouds that further promoted and maintained the storm development.     

Contribution of cloud condensate to surface rainfall process

Contribution of cloud condensate to surface rainfall processes is investigated in a life span of tropical convection based on hourly data from a two-dimensional cloud resolving simulation. The model is forced by the large-scale vertical velocity, zonal wind and horizontal advections obtained from tropical ocean global atmosphere coupled ocean-atmosphere response experiment (TOGA COARE). The results show that during the genesis, development, and decay of tropical convection, calculations with water vapor overestimate surface rain rate, and cloud condensate plays an important role in correcting overestimation in surface rain rates. The analysis is carried out in deep convective clouds and anvil clouds during the development of tropical convection. The surface rain rates calculated with water vapor in deep convective clouds and anvil clouds have similar magnitudes, the large surface rain rate appears in deep convective clouds due to the consumption of water hydrometeors whereas the small surface rain rate occurs in anvil clouds because of the gain of ice hydrometeors. Further analysis of the grid data shows that the surface rain rates calculated with water vapor and with cloud condensate are negatively correlated with the correlation coefficient of -0.85, and the surface rain rate calculated with cloud condensate is mainly contributed to the water hydrometeors in the tropical deep convective regime.     

Evidence for a link between global lightning activity and upper tropospheric water vapour

Tropospheric water vapour is a key element of the Earth's climate, which has direct effects as a greenhouse gas, as well as indirect effects through interaction with clouds, aerosols and tropospheric chemistry. Small changes in upper-tropospheric water vapour have a much larger impact on the greenhouse effect than small changes in water vapour in the lower atmosphere, but whether this impact is a positive or negative feedback remains uncertain. The main challenge in addressing this question is the difficulty in monitoring upper-tropospheric water vapour globally over long timescales. Here I show that upper-tropospheric water-vapour variability and global lightning activity are closely linked, suggesting that upper-tropospheric water-vapour changes can be inferred from records of global lightning activity, readily obtained from observations at a single location on the Earth's surface. This correlation reflects the fact that continental deep-convective thunderstorms transport large amounts of water vapour into the upper troposphere and thereby dominate the variations of global upper-tropospheric water vapour while producing most of the lightning on Earth. As global lightning induces Schumann resonances, an electromagnetic phenomenon in the atmosphere that can be observed easily at low cost, monitoring of these resonances might provide a convenient method for tracking upper-tropospheric water-vapour variability and hence contribute to a better understanding of the processes affecting climate change.     

GF-1遥感影像结合等高线消除云层干扰的连续水体重建法

为了解决遥感影像水体提取时易受到云干扰的问题,针对连续水体局部受云层干扰的影像图,采用高精度地形信息与高分一号卫星(GF-1)遥感影像两种数据相结合的方法重建水体。分别对高分一号卫星影像数据和高精度等高线地形数据进行预处理后,对缓冲区多次迭代提取未受云层覆盖的部分水体,通过对两种数据的地理配准、数学统计计算等图像运算确定水体还原水位值,从而还原云层影响下的水面面积。结果表明:该方法可以有效消除云层的影响,7幅受云层干扰影像提取水体还原后的水体面积平均相对误差在5%以内,与参考值相比,水体面积平均差值为0.0809km2。该方法较准确地还原了云层干扰下的水体面积,可广泛应用于受云层干扰影像的水体提取。     

新安江模型(三水源)参数的检验

本文用容观优选方法,对湿润地区14个流域作出了新安江模型(三水源)的参数.文中着重分析了自由水蓄水容量SM与地下水的出流系数KG两参数在时间上的稳定性与地区上的规律性.结果表明:在湿润地区用连续四年资料已可达到时间稳定,参数KG与SM有较好的相关关系,其中地质条件对参数起决定性作用.本文所得成果为参数的地区规律性问题的研究指出了方向.     

田洋玛珥湖中更新世以来磁化率特征及其环境意义

 对雷州半岛东南部的田洋玛珥湖TYC孔前40 m岩芯进行了研究,结果表明,磁化率与孢粉有很好的对应关系,因而磁化率值的高低变化能够作为该区气候环境变化的替代指标。沉积物磁化率与气候变化的关系为：磁化率的低值与气候暖湿对应;磁化率的高值则与气候寒冷或温凉相对应。中更新世以来,田洋玛珥湖气候环境演化经历了9个不同的阶段：346~301.4 kaBP,气候相对暖湿。301.4~248.8 kaBP,气候寒冷干燥。248.8~188.8 kaBP,气候相对暖湿。188.8~125.2 kaBP,气候寒冷干燥。125.2~69.3 kaBP,气候较为暖湿。69.3~40.43 kaBP,气候偏凉。40.43~25.5 kaBP,气候偏凉但较上阶段温度低,此时玛珥湖呈现出沼泽化过渡阶段。25.5~10.8 kaBP,气候寒冷干燥,玛珥湖干枯成为干玛珥湖。10.8 kaBP以来,由于后期人类活动对玛珥湖的改造,致使磁化率值不断升高。     

Weather and climate on Mars.

Imagine a planet very much like the Earth, with similar size, rotation rate and inclination of rotation axis, possessing an atmosphere and a solid surface, but lacking oceans and dense clouds of liquid water. We might expect such a desert planet to be dominated by large variations in day-night and winter-summer weather. Dust storms would be common. Observations and simulations of martian climate confirm these expectations and provide a wealth of detail that can help resolve problems of climate evolution.     

A ground-based transmission spectrum of the super-Earth exoplanet GJ 1214b

In contrast to planets with masses similar to that of Jupiter and higher, the bulk compositions of planets in the so-called super-Earth regime (masses 2-10 times that of the Earth) cannot be uniquely determined from a measurement of mass and radius alone. For these planets, there is a degeneracy between the mass and composition of both the interior and a possible atmosphere in theoretical models. The recently discovered transiting super-Earth exoplanet GJ 1214b is one example of this problem. Three distinct models for the planet that are consistent with its mass and radius have been suggested. Breaking the degeneracy between these models requires obtaining constraints on the planet's atmospheric composition. Here we report a ground-based measurement of the transmission spectrum of GJ 1214b between wavelengths of 780 and 1,000?nm. The lack of features in this spectrum rules out (at 4.9σ confidence) cloud-free atmospheres composed primarily of hydrogen. If the planet's atmosphere is hydrogen-dominated, then it must contain clouds or hazes that are optically thick at the observed wavelengths at pressures less than 200?mbar. Alternatively, the featureless transmission spectrum is also consistent with the presence of a dense, water vapour atmosphere.     

连铸机八杆机构动应力分析的有限元模型

本文采用瞬时结构化方法,将机构凝固在所受载荷最大的位置上,建立并求解了连铸机八杆机构动应力分析的有限元模型。