Incorporating Student Covariates in Cognitive Diagnosis Models

In educational measurement, cognitive diagnosis models have been developed to allow assessment of specific skills that are needed to perform tasks. Skill knowledge is characterized as present or absent and represented by a vector of binary indicators, or the skill set profile. After determining which skills are needed for each assessment item, a model is specified for the relationship between item responses and skill set profiles. Cognitive diagnosis models are often used for diagnosis, that is, for classifying students into the different skill set profiles. Generally, cognitive diagnosis models do not exploit student covariate information. However, investigating the effects of student covariates, such as gender, SES, or educational interventions, on skill knowledge mastery is important in education research, and covariate information may improve classification of students to skill set profiles. We extend a common cognitive diagnosis model, the DINA model, by modeling the relationship between the latent skill knowledge indicators and covariates. The probability of skill mastery is modeled as a logistic regression model, possibly with a student-level random intercept, giving a higher-order DINA model with a latent regression. Simulations show that parameter recovery is good for these models and that inclusion of covariates can improve skill diagnosis. When applying our methods to data from an online tutor, we obtain reasonable and interpretable parameter estimates that allow more detailed characterization of groups of students who differ in their predicted skill set profiles.     

Using Neural Network Analysis to Define Methods of DINA Model Estimation for Small Sample Sizes

The DINA model is a commonly used model for obtaining diagnostic information. Like many other Diagnostic Classification Models (DCMs), it can require a large sample size to obtain reliable item and examinee parameter estimation. Neural Network (NN) analysis is a classification method that uses a training dataset for calibration. As a result, if this training dataset is determined theoretically, as was the case in Gierl’s attribute hierarchical method (AHM), the NN analysis does not have any sample size requirements. However, a NN approach does not provide traditional item parameters of a DCM or allow for item responses to influence test calibration. In this paper, the NN approach will be implemented for the DINA model estimation to explore its effectiveness as a classification method beyond its use in AHM. The accuracy of the NN approach across different sample sizes, item quality and Q-matrix complexity is described in the DINA model context. Then, a Markov Chain Monte Carlo (MCMC) estimation algorithm and Joint Maximum Likelihood Estimation is used to extend the NN approach so that item parameters associated with the DINA model are obtained while allowing examinee responses to influence the test calibration. The results derived by the NN, the combination of MCMC and NN (NN MCMC) and the combination of JMLE and NN are compared with that of the well-established Hierarchical MCMC procedure and JMLE with a uniform prior on the attribute profile to illustrate their strength and weakness.     

Estimation of Generalized DINA Model with Order Restrictions

Cognitive diagnostic models provide valuable information on whether a student has mastered each of the attributes a test intends to evaluate. Despite its generality, the generalized DINA model allows for the possibility of lower correct rates for students who master more attributes than those who know less. This paper considers the use of order-constrained parameter space of the G-DINA model to avoid such a counter-intuitive phenomenon and proposes two algorithms, the upward and downward methods, for parameter estimation. Through simulation studies, we compare the accuracy in parameter estimation and in classification of attribute patterns obtained from the proposed two algorithms and the current approach when the restricted parameter space is true. Our results show that the upward method performs the best among the three, and therefore it is recommended for estimation, regardless of the distribution of respondents’ attribute patterns, types of test items, and the sample size of the data.     

Radical Constructivism in Biology and Cognitive Science

This article addresses the issue of “objectivism vs constructivism” in two areas,biology and cognitive science, which areintermediate between the natural sciences suchas physics (where objectivism is dominant) andthe human and social sciences (whereconstructivism is widespread). The issues inbiology and in cognitive science are intimatelyrelated; in each of these twin areas, the “objectivism vs constructivism” issue isinterestingly and rather evenly balanced; as aresult, this issue engenders two contrastingparadigms, each of which has substantialspecific scientific content. The neo-Darwinianparadigm in biology is closely resonant withthe classical cognitivist paradigm in cognitivescience, and both of them are intrinsicallyobjectivist. The organismic paradigm inbiology, based on the concept of autopoiesis,is consonant with the paradigm of “enaction” incognitive science; the latter paradigms are bothprofoundly constructivist.In cognitive science, the objectivism vsconstructivism issue is internal to thescientific field itself and reflexivity isinescapable. At this level, strong ontologicalobjectivism is self-contradictory and thereforeuntenable. Radical constructivism isself-coherent; but it also rehabilitatesa weak form of objectivism as a pragmaticallyviable alternative. In conclusion, there is aneven-handed reciprocity between “objectivist”and “constructivist” perspectives. Finally, thearticle examines the consequences of thisconclusion for fields other than cognitivescience: biology; physics and the naturalsciences; and the human and social sciences.     

Perceiving the Infinite and the Infinitesimal World: Unveiling and Optical Diagrams in Mathematics

Many important concepts of the calculus are difficult to grasp, and they may appear epistemologically unjustified. For example, how does a real function appear in “small” neighborhoods of its points? How does it appear at infinity? Diagrams allow us to overcome the difficulty in constructing representations of mathematical critical situations and objects. For example, they actually reveal the behavior of a real function not “close to” a point (as in the standard limit theory) but “in” the point. We are interested in our research in the diagrams which play an optical role –microscopes and “microscopes within microscopes”, telescopes, windows, a mirror role (to externalize rough mental models), and an unveiling role (to help create new and interesting mathematical concepts, theories, and structures). In this paper we describe some examples of optical diagrams as a particular kind of epistemic mediator able to perform the explanatory abductive task of providing a better understanding of the calculus, through a non-standard model of analysis. We also maintain they can be used in many other different epistemological and cognitive situations.     

Understanding Scientific Study via Process Modeling

This paper argues that scientific studies distinguish themselves from other studies by a combination of their processes, their (knowledge) elements and the roles of these elements. This is supported by constructing a process model. An illustrative example based on Newtonian mechanics shows how scientific knowledge is structured according to the process model. To distinguish scientific studies from research and scientific research, two additional process models are built for such processes. We apply these process models: (1) to argue that scientific progress should emphasize both the process of change and the content of change; (2) to chart the major stages of scientific study development; and (3) to define “science”.     

About the Confusion Between the Course of Time and the Arrow of Time

A conclusion drawn after a conference devoted (in 1995) to the “arrow of time” was the following: “Indeed, it seems not a very great exaggeration to say that the main problem with “the problem of the direction of time” is to figure out exactly what the problem is supposed to be !” What does that mean? That more than 130 years after the work of Ludwig Boltzmann on the interpretation of irreversibility of physical phenomena, and that one century after Einstein’s formulation of Special Relativity, we are still not sure what we mean when we talk of “time” or “arrow of time”. We shall try to show that one source of this difficulty is our tendency to confuse, at least verbally, time and becoming, i.e. the course of time and the arrow of time, two concepts that the formalisms of modern physics are careful to distinguish.     

"小说"及其亚文类名称的英译探究

“小说”及其亚文类名称的英译是一个复杂的问题,误译的现象在期刊和辞书中都并不鲜见。英语中的fiction与novel的含义并不相同,二者与汉语中的“小说”概念也均不一致,需根据情况来选择准确的译词。作为泛指,“小说”应当译作fiction,而不是novel,因为novel指的是长篇小说。在小说亚文类的划分上,英语文学界和中国文学界皆尚存在不同的意见。就当今汉语小说的实际情况而言,应当划分为四种亚文类:长篇小说、中篇小说、短篇小说和微篇小说。其中最后一种亚文类的命名歧出纷纭,而以“小小说”和“微型小说”最为通行,但最合理的命名则是“微篇小说”。“中篇小说”和“微篇小说”各自具有多种译名,而其合理性各有差别,经过辨析,可以甄选出最合适的英语词来作为译名。     

从“兵”看军语语义扩展

“兵”是军语中的基本语词之一,其使用频率高,构词力强。依据认知语义学中的隐喻和转喻理论对“兵”的语义扩展认知机制进行分析,可以发现,在“兵”的语义扩展的过程中,语义的辐射型变化交织着连锁型变化,隐喻和转喻从中共同发挥作用,它们是其语义发展的两条主要认知途径。考察“兵”的语义扩展可以为认识军语语义扩展的普遍规律提供启示。     

Complexity and Context-Dependency

It is argued that given the “anti-anthropomorphic” principle—that the universe is not structured for our benefit—modelling trade-offs will necessarily mean that many of our models will be context-specific. It is argued that context-specificity is not the same as relativism. The “context heuristic”—that of dividing processing into rich, fuzzy context-recognition and crisp, conscious reasoning and learning—is outlined. The consequences of accepting the impact of this human heuristic in the light of the necessity of accepting context-specificity in our modelling of complex systems is examined. In particular the development of “islands” or related model clusters rather than over-arching laws and theories. It is suggested that by accepting and dealing with context (rather than ignoring it) we can push the boundaries of science a little further.     

计算语言学中的重要术语——词向量

过去几年,自然语言处理(NLP)技术飞速发展,文本表征成了计算语言学的核心。其中,分布式词向量表征在语义表达方面展现出巨大的潜力与应用效果。文章从语言学理论基础出发,介绍了计算语言学的重要术语——词向量。探讨了词向量的两种表示方式:离散式与分布式;介绍了词向量在语义变迁等历时语言学领域的应用。在此基础上,指出词向量语义计算法存在的局限性,并总结了两种词义消歧方法:无监督与基于知识库。最后,文章提出大规模知识库与词向量的结合可能是未来文本表征研究的重要方向之一。     

基于框架术语学理论的北约术语管理

“框架术语学”认知理论是美籍西班牙裔语言学家费伯教授最富有代表性的理论。她采用北约的医学术语作为设计范例,依照概念体系重新构建了原医学术语表,其出发点以语义分析和语料库分析为基础,概念分析结果也经过该领域军事医学专家的验证。整个术语管理模型在“框架”里构建,能更好地反映特定专业领域里典型性知识及其语境。     

将“肝系”一词纳入中医术语体系的建议

探讨中医术语“肝”的起源与演变,可以发现“肝”的“能指/所指”关系发生过多次转移:物质实体→功能概念→物质实体。“肝”的组合关系和聚合关系,揭示了“肝”的意义指向,以及在整个符号系统中的地位。“肝”的隐喻和转喻同样揭示的是组合关系和聚合关系,隐喻的基础是相似,转喻的基础是相近,以此可以说明中医“肝”概念的形成过程。从历时上考察,“肝”的所指存在混乱和边界不清的情况。在目前中医药术语规范体系中,尚缺乏一个重要术语“肝系”。“肝系”一词的使用,具有词频和理据两方面的合理性,且具有较强的区分度和解释功能。“心系”“脾系”“肺系”“肾系”等同级别名词也应相应增加,才符合系统性。     

A Nonlinear Method for Measuring the Effects of Environmental Variations

Ever wonder if it is possible to construct a numeric scale for environmental variables, like one does for the temperature? This paper is an attempt to construct one. There are two main parts: section “Statistical Analysis of Variations” presents a general statistical strategy for environmental factor selection. Section “Nonlinear Analytical Geometric Model of Variations” develops an analytical geometric representation of system variations in response to environmental changes. The model is used to quantify the effects of environmental interactions. The paper treats only one-dimensional case, however, the derivation of the case of multiple independent factors follows immediately. The general method developed in this paper may prove applicable to many different fields, such as extensions beyond classical physics, economics, and other sciences. Section “Conclusion” provides an illustration of applications, examples and implications of the results.     

论“边界对象”对“第三阶段科学传播”的拓展功能

在"第三阶段科学传播"提出至今的近二十年中,尽管元理论得到广泛认可,但其现实感召力和现实到场的程度仍存在局限;同时,纵观国内现有的三种科学传播研究范式,均未能真正回应"第三阶段"的内在诉求。文章认为,为缓解这两大问题,可引入"边界对象"的概念。文章主要论述此概念如何拓展"第三阶段研究"的方法论、理论与"第三阶段科学传播实践",以及如何使三种已有研究范式体现出具有"第三阶段意味"的"整体性特征"。以此,为拓展、推进"第三阶段科学传播"提供一种思路。     

“压舱石”术语义商补

航运史上,空船往往必须加载压舱石,但加载压舱石的并不只有空船,《现代汉语词典》(第7版)“压舱石”释语中的释义成分“空船”宜改为“船只”。船用固体压舱物构成一个概念系统,其中“压舱石”和“压载铁(压舱铁)”的术语义在语义特征、使用语境和术语色彩上都有显著差异,“压舱石”释语中的释义成分“铸铁”宜删去。     

“上帝”“神”抑或“天主”——基督宗教Deus汉译名探讨

针对常见汉译《圣经》版本分别将“Deus(God)”译作“上帝”“神”和“天主”的现状,从教父学翻译实践出发,分析这三种译名于义理的“合与不合”,认为“天主”是“Deus(God)”的最佳汉译名。     

How Future Depends on Past and Rare Events in Systems of Life

The dependence on history of both present and future dynamics of life is a common intuition in biology and in humanities. Historicity will be understood in terms of changes of the space of possibilities (or of “phase space”) as well as by the role of diversity in life’s structural stability and of rare events in history formation. We hint to a rigorous analysis of “path dependence” in terms of invariants and invariance preserving transformations, as it may be found also in physics, while departing from the physico-mathematical analyses. The idea is that the (relative or historicized) invariant traces of the past under organismal or ecosystemic transformations contribute to the understanding (or the “theoretical determination”) of present and future states of affairs. This yields a peculiar form of unpredictability (or randomness) in biology, at the core of novelty formation: the changes of observables and pertinent parameters may depend also on past events. In particular, in relation to the properties of synchronic measurement in physics, the relevance of diachronic measurement in biology is highlighted. This analysis may a fortiori apply to cognitive and historical human dynamics, while allowing to investigate some general properties of historicity in biology.     

试论新中国“规划科学”模式的延续和发展——以“自然辩证法研究规划草案”为中心的考察

新中国成立后,哲学社会科学走上由国家主导的"规划科学"模式的道路。但受政治运动冲击、制度缺失等因素的影响,制定的各项哲学社会科学规划大都形同虚设,只有1956年制定的《自然辩证法(数学和自然科学中的哲学问题)十二年(1956-1967)研究规划草案》幸运地成为集中体现并延续上述"规划科学"模式的一个成功特例。虽然草案本身还只是一个不完善的学术性工作计划,但它依然充分发挥了"规划科学"模式的积极作用,推动了具有中国特色的自然辩证法事业的发展,在中国自然辩证法发展史上具有极其重要的地位和作用。     

杂议由“机械”组成的科技术语的定名

文章认为由中文“机械”组成的术语还具有“有力作用”或与“力学”有关的词义,并且由这个含义组成的术语绝大多数定名“机械××”,忽视这个概念,将其改成“力学××”往往词不达意,并着重阐述mechanical testing定名为“机械试验”的理由。