Activation of the AXL kinase causes resistance to EGFR-targeted therapy in lung cancer

Human non-small cell lung cancers (NSCLCs) with activating mutations in EGFR frequently respond to treatment with EGFR-targeted tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKIs), such as erlotinib, but responses are not durable, as tumors acquire resistance. Secondary mutations in EGFR (such as T790M) or upregulation of the MET kinase are found in over 50% of resistant tumors. Here, we report increased activation of AXL and evidence for epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT) in multiple in vitro and in vivo EGFR-mutant lung cancer models with acquired resistance to erlotinib in the absence of the EGFR p.Thr790Met alteration or MET activation. Genetic or pharmacological inhibition of AXL restored sensitivity to erlotinib in these tumor models. Increased expression of AXL and, in some cases, of its ligand GAS6 was found in EGFR-mutant lung cancers obtained from individuals with acquired resistance to TKIs. These data identify AXL as a promising therapeutic target whose inhibition could prevent or overcome acquired resistance to EGFR TKIs in individuals with EGFR-mutant lung cancer.     

Visualization of subcellular NAD pools and intra-organellar protein localization by poly-ADP-ribose formation

Poly-ADP-ribose polymerases (PARPs) use NAD⁺ as substrate to generate polymers of ADP-ribose. We targeted the catalytic domain of human PARP1 as molecular NAD⁺ detector into cellular organelles. Immunochemical detection of polymers demonstrated distinct subcellular NAD⁺ pools in mitochondria, peroxisomes and, surprisingly, in the endoplasmic reticulum and the Golgi complex. Polymers did not accumulate within the mitochondrial intermembrane space or the cytosol. We demonstrate the suitability of this compartment-specific NAD⁺ and poly-ADP-ribose turnover to establish intra-organellar protein localization. For overexpressed proteins, genetically endowed with PARP activity, detection of polymers indicates segregation from the cytosol and consequently intra-organellar residence. In mitochondria, polymer build-up reveals matrix localization of the PARP fusion protein. Compared to presently used fusion tags for subcellular protein localization, these are substantial improvements in resolution. We thus established a novel molecular tool applicable for studies of subcellular NAD metabolism and protein localization.     

On Cowania and its intergeneric hybrids in Arizona

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Human immunodeficiency virus genetic variation that can escape cytotoxic T cell recognition.

In a longitudinal study of HIV seropositive patients, there were fluctuations in the specificity of cytotoxic T cells for the virus. This was matched by variability in proviral gag DNA epitope sequences in the lymphocytes of these patients. Some of these viral variants are not recognized by autologous T cells. Accumulation of such mutations in T-cell antigenic targets would provide a mechanism for immune escape.