Astrocladistics: A Phylogenetic Analysis of Galaxy Evolution II. Formation and Diversification of Galaxies

This series of papers is intended to evaluate astrocladistics in reconstructing phylogenies of galaxies. The objective of this second paper is to formalize the concept of galaxy formation and to identify the processes of diversification. We show that galaxy diversity can be expected to organize itself in a hierarchy. In order to better understand the role of mergers, we have selected a sample of 43 galaxies from the GALICS database built from simulations with a hybrid model for galaxy formation studies. These simulated galaxies, described by 119 characters and considered as representing still undefined classes, have experienced different numbers of merger events during evolution. Our cladistic analysis yields a robust tree that proves the existence of a hierarchy. Mergers, like interactions (not taken into account in the GALICS simulations), are probably a strong driver for galaxy diversification. Our result shows that mergers participate in a branching type of evolution, but do not seem to play the role of an evolutionary clock.     

The MAP test for multimodality

We introduce a test for detecting multimodality in distributions based on minimal constrained spanning trees. We define a Minimal Ascending Path Spanning Tree (MAPST) on a set of points as a spanning tree that has the minimal possible sum of lengths of links with the constraint that starting from any link, the lengths of the links are non-increasing towards a root node. We define similarly MAPSTs with more than one root. We present some algorithms for finding such trees. Based on these trees, we devise a test for multimodality, called the MAP Test (for Minimal Ascending Path). Using simulations, we estimate percentage points of the MAP statistic and assess the power of the test. Finally, we illustrate the use of MAPSTs for determining the number of modes in a distribution of positions of galaxies on photographic plates from a rich galaxy cluster.     

“文字学”与“汉字学”辨析

在语言学中,“文字学”这个术语常有两种含义：一种是指“以不同民族文字为对象,揭示人类文字构成和运用的一般规律的科学”;另一种是指“研究汉字的学问”。目前,无论是从术语规范的角度出发,还是从人们现今的实际使用状况来看,后一种用法已经很不合适了,应予以剔除。另外,“研究汉字的学问”目前还有着多种异称：“文字学”、“汉字学”、“中国文字学”等,为避免术语使用的混乱,应确定学术界普遍认可的“汉字学”作为规范的正名。     

A New Class of Weighted Similarity Indices Using Polytomous Variables

We introduce new similarity measures between two subjects, with reference to variables with multiple categories. In contrast to traditionally used similarity indices, they also take into account the frequency of the categories of each attribute in the sample. This feature is useful when dealing with rare categories, since it makes sense to differently evaluate the pairwise presence of a rare category from the pairwise presence of a widespread one. A weighting criterion for each category derived from Shannon??s information theory is suggested. There are two versions of the weighted index: one for independent categorical variables and one for dependent variables. The suitability of the proposed indices is shown in this paper using both simulated and real world data sets.     

汉字系统与元素用字

汉字是成系统的,元素用字作为汉字系统的一部分,也受制于汉字系统的整体状况。元素用字的选用、创制或演变,都受到整个汉字系统的控制,最终形成了既符合汉字总体系统,又具有自身相对完整的元素用字子系统。元素用字的状况可以为专科科技术语及其用字的研究提供启发与借鉴。     

The Epistemological Functions of Symbolization in Leibniz’s Universal Characteristic

Leibniz’s universal characteristic is a fundamental aspect of his theory of cognition. Without symbols or characters it would be difficult for the human mind to define several concepts and to achieve many demonstrations. In most disciplines, and particularly in mathematics, the mind must then focus on symbols and their combinatorial rules rather than on mental contents. For Leibniz, mental perception is most of the time too confused for attaining distinct notions and valid deductions. In this paper, I argue that the functions of symbolization differ depending upon the kind of concepts that are replaced with characters. In my view, most commentators did not sufficiently underline the distinction between two main functions of formal substitution in Leibniz’s characteristic: either increasing our knowledge or simply structuring it. In the first case, we complete our knowledge because formal substitution makes sensible and imaginary concepts more distinct. In the second case, symbolization helps to organize contents that are already conceived of by reason. Thus the process of substitution is not always identically applicable, for symbols replace different types of concepts.     

汉字系统与元素用字

摘要：汉字是成系统的，元素用字作为汉字系统的一部分，也受制于汉字系统的整体状况。元素用字的选用、创制或演变，都受到整个汉字系统的控制，最终形成了既符合汉字总体系统，又具有自身相对完整性的元素用字子系统。元素用字的状况可以为专科科技术语及其用字的研究提供启发与借鉴。     

染整专业术语翻译探讨

探讨染整专业术语翻译过程中应注意的几个问题。为保证术语翻译的准确性,应关注概念的内涵与外延;为使专业术语翻译规范,需参照相关学科的规范名词,对物质名称的翻译应结合物质的化学结构及汉字的使用习惯;对可译为多个术语的词条,其翻译应视具体语言环境进行词义的选择或引申;应继承现有的术语并在此基础上发展新的术语。     

染整专业术语翻译探讨

探讨染整专业术语翻译过程中应注意的几个问题.为保证术语翻译的准确性,应关注概念的内涵与外延;为使专业术语翻译规范,需参照相关学科的规范名词,对物质名称的翻译应结合物质的化学结构及汉字的使用习惯;对可译为多个术语的词条,其翻译应视具体语言环境进行词义的选择或引申;应继承现有的术语并在此基础上发展新的术语.     

二十世纪国际改历活动与今后趋势

该文评述了二十世纪以来国际上的改历活动，特别是１９４７年和１９５４－１９５６年两次在联合国讨论改历提案的过程。作者还分析了各种改历方案及其实现的可能性。指出在现有的新方案中，主要因存在“空日”而难以被普遍接受。因此，不可能在“２０００年启用新公历”。     

军语用字的计量分析

军语用字分析能够在一定程度上反映军事领域汉字的构成和应用规律。以2011年版《中国人民解放军军语》(以下简称《军语》)收录的军语为主要对象,通过计量分析,论证了军语用字基本上都为常用汉字,反映了军语大多是按照通俗易懂的原则来定名的。对比1972年版、1982年版、1997年版《军语》词目中的用字情况,发现军语用字的覆盖面正在逐渐扩大,但常用字相对固定,临界字具有位置分布的不均衡性。     

“系统的系统”工程——体系工程研究综述

本文针对当前系统科学研究中出现的复杂体系问题,从体系的定义和系统工程研究存在的不足入手,分析整理了体系工程的定义,提出符合我国研究实践的体系工程概念、内涵及研究目标,并通过对比体系工程与系统工程的不同阐述了体系工程的特性。然后,在基本概念及特征的基础上,概括当前体系工程研究所面临的挑战,提出体系工程研究的热点领域及技术方向。最后,总结全文,指出体系工程研究潜在的应用领域,展望了体系工程研究的巨大前景。     

从科学的社会研究到科学的文化研究

后库恩时代的科学论的进展是从科学的社会研究走向科学的文化研究，其实质是科学观念的变迁，即以实践的科学观取代表象的科学观。宏观上对科学论的进展作出描述，提出科学的文化研究所面临的难题以及解决进路，即强调科学的文化研究的实践性与反思性特征。     

Minimal memetics and the Evolution of Patented Technology

The nature and status of cultural evolution and its connection with biological evolution are controversial in part because of Richard Dawkin’s suggestion that the scientific study of culture should include “memetics,” an analog of genetics in which genes are replaced by “memes”—the hypothetical units of cultural evolution. Memetics takes different forms; I focus on its minimal form, which claims merely that natural selection shapes to some extent the evolution of some aspects of culture. Advocates and critics of memetics disagree about the scientific status of memetics, but they agree that memetics must face the following fundamental problems. Problem 1: Cultural evolution differs too much from biological evolution. Problem 2: Culture is too complex. Problem 3: Memes are too difficult to identify and track. Problem 4: Memetics produces only trivial results. This paper examines these problems in the context of a minimal memetic analysis in one specific context: patented inventions. Technology is a special subset of culture, and patented inventions are a special subset of technology—not least because there is a detailed written record of every patent. I describe four recent empirical results on technological innovation derived from memetic analysis of the patent record. Result 1: Inkjet printing, PCR, and stents are key drivers of technological innovation. Result 2: Patent genealogies are tangled and incestuous. Result 3: Door-opening innovations drive the evolution of technology. Result 4: The evolving content of the drivers of innovation confirms the importance of inkjet printing, PCR, and stents, among other inventions. These results show that minimal memetics can provide a novel and illuminating analysis the evolution of patented technology. Furthermore, this memetic analysis can answer all of the main problems with memetics. Problem 1 can be dismissed because culture and biology can be quite disanalogous, provided that natural selection still operates in both. Problem 2 is a mirage, because memetic analysis of the patented inventions is consistent with the full richness and complexity of the evolution of technology. Problem 3 is easy to solve, because the patent record makes it trivial to identify and track patents and their key traits through lineages. Problem 4 can be fully answered only after memetic analysis becomes widespread, but the results reviewed here shows that minimal memetics does yield scientific results that are nontrivial and interesting.     

Model-Based Clustering for Image Segmentation and Large Datasets via Sampling

The rapid increase in the size of data sets makes clustering all the more important to capture and summarize the information, at the same time making clustering more difficult to accomplish. If model-based clustering is applied directly to a large data set, it can be too slow for practical application. A simple and common approach is to first cluster a random sample of moderate size, and then use the clustering model found in this way to classify the remainder of the objects. We show that, in its simplest form, this method may lead to unstable results. Our experiments suggest that a stable method with better performance can be obtained with two straightforward modifications to the simple sampling method: several tentative models are identified from the sample instead of just one, and several EM steps are used rather than just one E step to classify the full data set. We find that there are significant gains from increasing the size of the sample up to about 2,000, but not from further increases. These conclusions are based on the application of several alternative strategies to the segmentation of three different multispectral images, and to several simulated data sets.     

技术跨越型企业的技术吸收能力探究

本文对技术跨越型企业的技术吸收能力的理论来源和现实意义进行了探讨,并对其内涵进行回顾和界定,针对技术跨越的不同模式,对其进行了拓展和分类,从企业所处的产业环境、自身的资源和所吸收的技术特性的三种维度对影响企业技术吸收能力的因素进行了分析,最终给出增强企业吸收能力的对策建议.     

Power and Sample Size Computation for Wald Tests in Latent Class Models

Latent class (LC) analysis is used by social, behavioral, and medical science researchers among others as a tool for clustering (or unsupervised classification) with categorical response variables, for analyzing the agreement between multiple raters, for evaluating the sensitivity and specificity of diagnostic tests in the absence of a gold standard, and for modeling heterogeneity in developmental trajectories. Despite the increased popularity of LC analysis, little is known about statistical power and required sample size in LC modeling. This paper shows how to perform power and sample size computations in LC models using Wald tests for the parameters describing association between the categorical latent variable and the response variables. Moreover, the design factors affecting the statistical power of these Wald tests are studied. More specifically, we show how design factors which are specific for LC analysis, such as the number of classes, the class proportions, and the number of response variables, affect the information matrix. The proposed power computation approach is illustrated using realistic scenarios for the design factors. A simulation study conducted to assess the performance of the proposed power analysis procedure shows that it performs well in all situations one may encounter in practice.     

关于汉语训诂术语的术语化过程和演变规律研究的思考

普通词语如何演变成为专业术语的过程十分引人注意,各个学科领域都非常关注本学科术语的发展演变情况。汉语训诂术语是如何由一般词语术语化而来,同样引人注目。文章以常用训诂术语为例,通过文献考察、定量、定性、统计、归纳等方法,研究这些训诂术语的术语化过程和演变规律,不仅可以解决训诂术语的标准、内涵和功能分析等分歧问题,而且有助于探讨普通词语的术语化过程和一般演变规律。     

Detecting Clusters in the Data from Variance Decompositions of Its Projections

A new projection-pursuit index is used to identify clusters and other structures in multivariate data. It is obtained from the variance decompositions of the data’s one-dimensional projections, without assuming a model for the data or that the number of clusters is known. The index is affine invariant and successful with real and simulated data. A general result is obtained indicating that clusters’ separation increases with the data’s dimension. In simulations it is thus confirmed, as expected, that the performance of the index either improves or does not deteriorate when the data’s dimension increases, making it especially useful for “large dimension-small sample size” data. The efficiency of this index will increase with the continuously improved computer technology. Several applications are presented.     

染整专业术语翻译探讨

探讨染整专业术语翻译过程中应注意的几个问题。为保证术语翻译的准确性,应关注概念的内涵与外延;为使专业术语翻译规范,需参照相关学科的规范名词,对物质名称的翻译应结合物质的化学结构及汉字的使用习惯;对可译为多个术语的词条,其翻译应视具体语言环境进行词义的选择或引申;应继承现有的术语并在此基础上发展新的术语。