科学与宗教:自然、社会与实践

在科学与宗教的关系上,科学实在论与社会建构论持两种极端的态度.科学实在论认为科学与宗教是人类活动的两种完全不同的领域,科学研究自然,而宗教则管辖着人类的精神与道德生活,两者毫无相关性.社会建构论认为,如果自然科学是科学家共同体的范式,那么创世科学则是圣经基要主义者宗派的范式,两者之间尽管不可通约,但具有同等的地位与权利.据此导致了两者的激烈的冲突.关键问题在于双方脱离了人类的生活经验去谈论科学与宗教的关系.怀特海哲学表现了他试图在人类生活经验中用动态来综合静态,把价值输入事实,用潜能来组合现实,用宗教来调和科学,从事件走向实有再到机体的基本思想趋势,所有这一切,目的在于消除由自然的二岔性所导致的科学危机.     

现代性的阐释——梁启超的宗教思想

梁启超是中国近代史上百科全书式的学者,他的许多见识、观点都不乏深刻之处,在近代历史上产生过巨大而广泛的影响,他的宗教思想也受到学界的关注。理性与情感的区分梁启超认为"宗教是各个人信仰的对象",他认为只要为某人信仰所寄,便是某人的信仰对象,信仰有两种特征,"第一,信仰是情感的产物,不是理性的产物。第二,信仰是目的,不是手段。只有为信仰牺牲别的,断不肯为别的牺牲信仰。"梁启超认为宗教完全是情感的,"情感这样东西,含有神秘性,想要用     

“科学”与“宗教”概念的演变——评彼得·哈里森《科学与宗教的领地》

"宗教"和"科学"这两个文化范畴对于理解现代性的本质及其遗产最为重要,但我们现在理解的"科学"与"宗教"都是相对晚近的观念,是在过去三百年里在西方出现的,是在漫长的历史过程中逐渐形成的。"科学"和"宗教"这两个概念起初都是指个体的内在品质或者说"德性",到了16世纪则渐渐成为首先通过教理和实践来理解的东西,成了命题式信念系统,这种客观化过程是科学与宗教之间关系的前提。关于科学与宗教的传统叙事,无论是冲突、独立、对话和融合,都无法刻画"科学"与"宗教"的关系。这是因为,"科学"和"宗教"并非划分文化领土的自明方式或自然方式,它们既不是人类的普遍倾向,也不是人类社会的必然特征,而是因为独特的历史情况而形成的。无论是持冲突观点,还是持融合观点,都同样巩固了"科学"与"宗教"的现代边界。     

爱因斯坦与宗教

爱因斯坦发表了为数不少的关于宗教的论著,产生了很大的影响。神学家、科学史家、科学哲学家以及各个领域的学者从不同的角度对其进行了解读,都试图从爱因斯坦那里找到对自己有利的论证。用神学的术语来讲,爱因斯坦的宗教思想可以称之为自然神学,爱因斯坦的例子也说明了科学与宗教的相通与对立是同时存在的。我们或许可以把爱因斯坦的宗教观称之为"动机宗教观"。     

科学中的认知与价值——与陈瑞麟教授商榷

陈瑞麟在《认知与评价》中提出:认知与价值具有核心、主导、内在的地位,透过认知与价值的中介,社会因素才能对事实的形成与科学的发展产生因果影响。他接受SSK强纲领中的因果性、无偏性、反身性这三项原则,但是坚决反对"对称性"原则与ANT的利益说明。笔者认为:陈瑞麟的分析仅限于自然科学;认知价值与社会价值并非截然二分,即使是"内在认知价值"也可能有其社会根源;虽然认知与价值在大多数科学案例中起着至关重要的作用,但不能必然保证如此;建构主义的正面意义在于,我们如何通过科学体制的公正性来捍卫科学的客观性。因此,本文倡导从"后科史哲"走向科学技术的"新史哲社"。     

人类基因增强伦理价值判断的人性论困境与超越

现代性的价值指向、人性的基因决定论、人类天性与价值之间直接的因果决定论以及人类自由对基因获得方式的依赖性共同构成了哈贝马斯人性论的理论困境,使人性论在人类基因增强伦理批判中日现困境。发展伦理学的发展有限性原则提供了整体主义的视角,使我们能够从人类基因组、自然和社会三个系统对人类角色的限制来考察人类的角色,从而使基因增强对人类的生存可能具有的负面价值清晰地呈现出来。     

论休谟的信念和或然性

休谟的信念是指与当前印象相关联的一个生动观念。因此信念既不是一个单纯的观念,也不是印象。信念并不是被动接受的一种知觉,而是心灵主动活动的结果。从《人性论》的文本中,可以抽取出在信念的形成过程中实际上共同起作用的三层结构。伴随或然性的信念正是依靠因果推理结构中两个条件的检验,才为走向知识的确定性提供了可能性。     

恩格斯“末世”论探析——《自然辩证法》中的“终极关怀”

恩格斯的《自然辩证法》包含着一种"末世"论的观点。任何事物的发展都有一个终结,整个宇宙的命运也是这样。永恒发展是物质永恒循环中的发展,对人类历史和人自身价值的理解应当置于这个大背景之下。恩格斯的"末世"论受到了基督教思想的影响,又是立足当时科学成果对宗教神学的批判,是对人的历史命运和人自身价值的"终极关怀"。     

论休谟的信念和或然性

休谟的信念是指与当前印象相关联的一个生动观念。因此信念既不是一个单纯的观念,也不是印象。信念并不是被动接受的一种知觉,而是心灵主动活动的结果。从《人性论》的文本中,可以抽取出在信念的形成过程中实际上共同起作用的三层结构。伴随或然性的信念正是依靠因果推理结构中两个条件的检验,才为走向知识的确定性提供了可能性。     

科学哲学史研究的兴起:从“科学共同体”走向“科学-哲学共同体”

自1996年第一届国际科学哲学史大会算起,科学哲学史的学科性质就备受关注。科学哲学史不是科学思想史,也不是科学哲学的流派史。与传统科学哲学"拒斥形而上学"相比,科学哲学史主张恢复科学与哲学的思想关联。这门新学科主要研究科学与哲学之间关系的思想演化,也就是科学与哲学的融合、冲突与新的融合的思想轮回。借鉴库恩的思想,我们把科学与哲学的这种融合称为科学-哲学共同体。所谓科学哲学史也就是科学-哲学共同体因共识而形成、因科学革命而断裂、再因科学促进哲学变革的思想演化过程。从科学哲学史角度看,科学与哲学是连续知识谱系的两极,科学哲学应该是经验性与超验性的统一,知识与智慧的统一,事实判断与价值判断的统一。我们的结论是,任何一种科学理论,总有其哲学观念;任何一种哲学观念,总有其科学基础。     

休闲、信仰与对生命意义的追寻

休闲不是简单的放松、娱乐、玩.通过对历史上休闲与宗教之关系的梳理及对休闲之深层意义的探讨能够看到,在更本质的意义上休闲是我们形成自己信仰的一个基础,从而跟人类最高层次的精神生活有着密切的联系.在休闲中建立信仰要求我们对自己的欲望有一定的节制,但这跟休闲理论中经常强调的自由要素并不相悖,甚至可以说是相辅相成的.     

科学规范的内涵、类别、功能、结构和形式

提出科学规范论的十大问题。阐述科学规范的内涵、功能与类别;阐述科学规范系统的逻辑结 构与科学规范的存在和表达形式。     

Gould, Hull, and the Individuation of Scientific Theories

When is conceptual change so significant that we should talk about a new theory, not a new version of the same theory? We address this problem here, starting from Gould’s discussion of the individuation of the Darwinian theory. He locates his position between two extremes: ‘minimalist’—a theory should be individuated merely by its insertion in a historical lineage—and ‘maximalist’—exhaustive lists of necessary and sufficient conditions are required for individuation. He imputes the minimalist position to Hull and attempts a reductio: this position leads us to give the same ‘name’ to contradictory theories. Gould’s ‘structuralist’ position requires both ‘conceptual continuity’ and descent for individuation. Hull’s attempt to assimilate into his general selectionist framework Kuhn’s notion of ‘exemplar’ and the ‘semantic’ view of the structure of scientific theories can be used to counter Gould’s reductio, and also to integrate structuralist and population thinking about conceptual change.     

社会需求、技术缺失与机器的诞生

在肯定前人关于技术发展根奉动力是“需求”的观点基础上,提出了技术改进和技术发明的一般性机制——“技术缺失”的显现和对这种显现的领会,并结合原始手工工具和机器的发明历史予以论证。机器的诞生是资本主义生产需求引发的,没有这种社会需求便不会有“机器缺失”的显现,也就没有弥补“缺失”的发明活动。机器技术的每一步进展,都是从手工工具使用时的局限中发现了改进的方向,前一阶段的技术缺失是后采改进和发明的向导;前一阶段的功能结构,在后一阶段都有一定的保留。现代技术尽管异常复杂,它的发明仍然是以另一个层次的“技术缺失”为基本条件的。     

全球化,科学词汇和生物学的未来

1 Biology for the 21st Century In a recent article in the New York Times (3/23/05), reporting on yet another upset to received views of the ways in which cells make use of their DNA, a prominent geneticist is quoted as remarking, "biologists have gotten used to the unexpected." Indeed, they have, as indeed, they have had to. Over the last few years, our understanding of molecular and developmental genetics has mutated dramatically in response to ever more complex analyses of ever more abundant and more complex data.     

Newtonian Emanation, Spinozism, Measurement and the Baconian Origins of the Laws of Nature

The first two sections of this paper investigate what Newton could have meant in a now famous passage from “De Graviatione” (hereafter “DeGrav”) that “space is as it were an emanative effect of God.” First it offers a careful examination of the four key passages within DeGrav that bear on this. The paper shows that the internal logic of Newton’s argument permits several interpretations. In doing so, the paper calls attention to a Spinozistic strain in Newton’s thought. Second it sketches four interpretive options: (i) one approach is generic neo-Platonic; (ii) another approach is associated with the Cambridge Platonist, Henry More; a variant on this (ii*) emphasizes that Newton mixes Platonist and Epicurean themes; (iii) a necessitarian approach; (iv) an approach connected with Bacon’s efforts to reformulate a useful notion of form and laws of nature. Hitherto only the second and third options have received scholarly attention in scholarship on DeGrav. The paper offers new arguments to treat Newtonian emanation as a species of Baconian formal causation as articulated, especially, in the first few aphorisms of part two of Bacon’s New Organon. If we treat Newtonian emanation as a species of formal causation then the necessitarian reading can be combined with most of the Platonist elements that others have discerned in DeGrav, especially Newton’s commitment to doctrines of different degrees of reality as well as the manner in which the first existing being ‘transfers’ its qualities to space (as a kind of causa-sui). This can clarify the conceptual relationship between space and its formal cause in Newton as well as Newton’s commitment to the spatial extended-ness of all existing beings. While the first two sections of this paper engage with existing scholarly controversies, in the final section the paper argues that the recent focus on emanation has obscured the importance of Newton’s very interesting claims about existence and measurement in “DeGrav”. The paper argues that according to Newton God and other entities have the same kind of quantities of existence; Newton is concerned with how measurement clarifies the way of being of entities. Newton is not claiming that measurement reveals all aspects of an entity. But if we measure something then it exists as a magnitude in space and as a magnitude in time. This is why in DeGrav Newton’s conception of existence really helps to “lay truer foundations of the mechanical sciences.”     

“磷、膦、钅粦”“氨、胺、铵”系列名词辨析

系统分析和归纳了“磷、膦、钅粦”“氨、胺、铵”系列名词的定义和知识点,探讨了易混淆、错用的各类情况,为科技编辑及其他技术人员正确、规范使用该系列名词术语提供借鉴。     

"生物积累"等三个术语概念的探讨

对辞书术语的定义格式作了查证,并通过与教材中的术语定义的对比,探讨两种定义格式的特点。根据参与术语翻译和标准评审的点滴积累与正反体验,将翻译定名中的常见问题尝试概括为十种。每种问题都举出实例,从逻辑、语法与格式三方面加以分析。文中举例虽取自信息技术和对定义的翻译,但所概括的定义的特点和常见问题适用于科学技术其他学科,适用于自行撰写定义。     

Towards a Hierarchical Definition of Life,the Organism,and Death

Despite hundreds of definitions, no consensus exists on a definition of life or on the closely related and problematic definitions of the organism and death. These problems retard practical and theoretical development in, for example, exobiology, artificial life, biology and evolution. This paper suggests improving this situation by basing definitions on a theory of a generalized particle hierarchy. This theory uses the common denominator of the “operator” for a unified ranking of both particles and organisms, from elementary particles to animals with brains. Accordingly, this ranking is called “the operator hierarchy”. This hierarchy allows life to be defined as: matter with the configuration of an operator, and that possesses a complexity equal to, or even higher than the cellular operator. Living is then synonymous with the dynamics of such operators and the word organism refers to a select group of operators that fit the definition of life. The minimum condition defining an organism is its existence as an operator, construction thus being more essential than metabolism, growth or reproduction. In the operator hierarchy, every organism is associated with a specific closure, for example, the nucleus in eukaryotes. This allows death to be defined as: the state in which an organism has lost its closure following irreversible deterioration of its organization. The generality of the operator hierarchy also offers a context to discuss “life as we do not know it”. The paper ends with testing the definition’s practical value with a range of examples.