Emission inventories of primary particles and pollutant gases for China

Detailed high-resolution emission inventories of primary particles(PM2.5,BC and OC) and pollutant gases(SO2,NOx,NH3,CO and VOCs) for China in 2007 were constructed on the basis of the latest fuel consumption data,mostly at the county level,and from socio-economic statistics and data on fossil and biomass fuels obtained from government agencies.New emission factors reflecting local features were also used.The calculated emissions were 13.212 Mt PM2.5,1.4 Mt BC,2.946 Mt OC,31.584 Mt SO2,23.248 Mt NOx,16.017 Mt NH3,164.856 Mt CO and 35.464 Mt VOCs.The national and regional emissions were gridded with 0.5°× 0.5° resolution for use in air quality models.Larger emissions were found in eastern and central China than in western China.The emissions estimated here are roughly equal to those obtained in previous studies,but with different contributions from because of seasonal changes in residential heating and biomass combustion.Finally,uncertainties in inventories were analyzed.     

Estimated HCFC-142b emissions in China: 2000–2050

1-Chloro-1,1-difluoroethane(HCFC-142b)was both ozone depleting substance under restriction of the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer(Montreal Protocol)and potent greenhouse gas with high GWP.Controlling its emissions in China will contribute to both mitigating climate change and protecting ozone.A national emission inventory of HCFC-142b for China during 2000–2012 was established and projected to2050 based on the 2006 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories and the Montreal Protocol,showing that(i)in contrast to the downward trend revealed by existing researches,HCFC-142b emissions kept increasing from 0.1 kt/y in 2000 to the peak of 14.4 kt/y in2012,making China a crucial contributor to global HCFC-142b emissions and(ii)for future emission projections,a continuous increase from 14.9 kt/y in 2013 to 97.2 kt/y in2050 was anticipated under the business-as-usual(BAU)scenarios,while a reduction of about 90%of the projected BAU emissions would be obtained by fulfilling the Montreal Protocol,namely an accumulative mitigation of 1578kt HCFC-142b from 2013 to 2050,equal to 103 kt ODP and 3504 Tg CO2emissions.Emissions from each province in 2012 were also estimated to identify key emission areas.Among the 31 mainland provinces in China(Hong Kong,Macao,and Taiwan were not included),Jiangsu,Zhejiang,Shandong,and Guangdong had the highest emission ratesin 2012(2.06,1.85,1.52,and 1.04 kt/y,respectively);Zhejiang,Jiangsu,and Shanghai exhibit the strongest emission strength(0.83,0.59,and 0.54 t/km2,respectively),much higher than the average national level of 0.33t/km2.     

China＇s sizeable and uncertain carbon sink： a perspective from GOSAT

Despite the agreement that China’s terrestrial ecosystems can provide a carbon sink and offset carbon dioxide(CO2)emissions from fossil fuels,the magnitude and spatial distribution of the sink remain uncertain.Accurate quantification of the carbon sequestration capacity of China’s terrestrial ecosystems has profound scientific and policy implications.Here,we report on the magnitude and patterns of China’s terrestrial carbon sink using the global monthly CO2flux data product from the Greenhouse gases Observing SATellite(GOSAT),the world’s first satellite dedicated to global greenhouse gas observation.We use the first year’s data from GOSAT(June 2009–May2010)that are currently available to assess China’s biospheric carbon fluxes.Our results show that China’s terrestrial ecosystems provide a carbon sink of-0.21 Pg C a-1.The consumption of fossil fuels in China leads to carbon dioxide emissions of 1.90 Pg C a-1into the atmosphere,approximately 11.1%of which is offset by China’s terrestrial ecosystems.China’s terrestrial ecosystems play a significant role in offsetting fossil fuel emissions and slowing down the buildup of CO2in the atmosphere.Our analysis based on GOSAT data offers a new perspective on the magnitude and distribution of China’s carbon sink.Our results show that China’s terrestrial ecosystems provide a sizeable and uncertain carbon sink,and further research is needed to reduce the uncertainty in its magnitude and distribution.     

Urbanization and heterogeneous surface warming in eastern China

With the homogeneity-adjusted surface air temperature (SAT) data at 312 stations in eastern China for 1979-2008 and the Defense Meteorological Satellite Program/Operational Linescan System (DMSP/OLS) nighttime light data, the spatial heterogeneities of the SAT trends on different scales are detected with a spatial filtering (i.e. moving spatial anomaly) method, and the impact of urbanization in eastern China on surface warming is analyzed. Results show that the urbanization can induce a remarkable summer warming in Yangtze River Delta (YRD) city cluster region and a winter warming in Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei (BTH) city cluster region. The YRD warming in summer primarily results from the significant increasing of maximum temperature, with an estimated urban warming rate at 0.132-0.250℃ per decade, accounting for 36%-68% of the total regional warming. The BTH warming in winter is primarily due to the remarkable increasing of minimum temperature, with an estimated urban warming rate at 0.102-0.214℃ per decade, accounting for 12%-24% of the total regional warming. The temporal-spatial differences of urban warming effect may be attributed to the variation of regional climatic background and the change of anthropogenic heat release.     

Satellite remote sensing of changes in NO x emissions over China during 1996–2010

Satellite derived NO2 column data have been used to study Chinese national fossil fuel consumption and pollutant emissions.Based on NO 2 retrievals from two satellites (GOME and SCIAMACHY) for 1996-2010,we analyzed the characteristics and evolution of regional pollution related to NO x emissions in China.Satellite observations indicated that the highly polluted regions were expanding.Anthropogenic emission dominated areas have expanded from the east to central and western China,and new highly polluted regions have formed throughout the nation.Bottom-up emission estimates suggested a 133% increase in anthropogenic NOx emissions in East Central China during 1996 to 2010,which was lower than the 184% increase of the NO2 columns measured by the satellites.We found that growth rates of NOx emissions have slowed in Chinese megacities over recent years,in contrast to which,the NOx emissions were soaring in medium-sized cities,indicating that strict controls of NOx emissions from coal-fired facilities are required in China.     

Estimation and prediction of black carbon emissions in Beijing City

Black carbon is a by-product of incomplete combustion of carbon containing fuels. It can alter atmospheric radiation property and make adverse impacts on human health. The energy consumption in Beijing City depends largely on coal burning. Recently, Beijing City has been performing the municipal energy structure adjustment as a tool for air pollution abatement, aiming at the air quality goal for the Beijing 2008 Olympic Games. Based on Beijing energy use data in 2000, combined with emission factors of major sources of black carbon, the emission of black carbon in Beijing City is estimated to be 7.77 Gg. Coke, raw coal and biomass as non-commercial energy are the main contributors to municipal black carbon emissions. Based on Beijing energy planning in the year 2008, the emission of black carbon in 2008 will be 2.97 Gg if the contribution from biomass is not taken into account. Assuming that the black carbon emission from rural biomass in 2008 is the same as that in 2004, the biomass burning will be the largest emitter of black carbon to Beijing City in 2008.     

Status in quo and future of geothermal energy in China

Energy saving and CO2 emissions reduction are critical tasks currently,and great effort has been made by Chinese government. Renewable energy consumption and CO2 emissions and reduction plan in China are introduced in this paper. Analysis is also made on present status and prospect of geothermal power generation and direct use in China respectively. Now,there is a new understanding of geothermal resources,and hot dry rock,considered as the future of geothermal resources,is likely used to generate electricity.     

Multimodel projections and uncertainties of net ecosystem production in China over the twenty-first century

Ecosystems in China have been absorbing anthropogenic CO2 over the last three decades. Here, we assess future carbon uptake in China using models from phase 5 of Coupled Model Intercomparison Project under four socio-economic scenarios. The average of China＇s carbon sink from 2006 to 2100 represented by multimodel mean net ecosystem production （NEP） is projected to increase （relative to averaged NEP from 1976 to 2005） in the range of 0.137 and 0.891 PgC a^-1 across different scenarios. Increases in NEP are driven by increases in net primary production exceeding increases in heterotrophic respiration, and future carbon sink is mainly attributed to areas located in eastern China. However, there exists a considerable model spread in the magnitude of carbon sink and model spread tends to be larger when future climate change becomes more intense. The model spread may result from intermodel discrepancy in the magnitude of CO2 fertilization effect on photosynthesis, soil carbon turnover time, presence of carbon-nitrogen cycle and interpretation of land-use changes. For better quantifying future carbon cycle, a research priority toward improving model representation of these processes is recommended.     

Comparison of the carbon isotope composition of total organic carbon and long-chain n-alkanes from surface soils in eastern China and their significance

Surface soil samples collected over a high spatial resolution in eastern China were analyzed for carbon isotope composition(δ 13C) of total organic carbon(TOC) and higher plant-derived long-chain n-alkanes,with the latter reported as weighted mean values.The two sets of δ 13C values are significantly correlated and show similar trends in spatial variation.The spatial distribution of δ 13C shows less negative values in the mid-latitudes between 31°N and 40°N and more negative ones at higher and lower latitudes.This is consistent with previously reported carbon isotope data from surface soil phytoliths in the same region and suggests that the mid-latitude area provides relatively favorable growing conditions for C4 plants.Furthermore,δ 13C values of both TOC and long-chain n-alkanes from 12 surface soil samples collected from a small grassland in north China displayed similar carbon isotope values and the difference between paired δ 13C of a soil samples remains relatively constant.Our data demonstrate that in eastern China,soil δ 13C composition of both TOC and long-chain n-alkanes is effective indicators of C3/C4 ratios of the prevailing vegetation.This work suggests that -22‰ and -32‰ are good estimated end members for the weighted mean δ 13C values of long-chain n-alkanes(C27,C29 and C31 n-alkanes) from soils under dominant C4 or C3 vegetation,allowing us to reconstruct paleovegetation trends.     

Spatiotemporal distribution and decadal change of the monthly temperature predictability limit in China

Based on the nonlinear Lyapunov exponent and nonlinear error growth dynamics, the spatiotemporal distribution and decadal change of the monthly temperature predictability limit （MTPL） in China is quantitatively analyzed. Data used are daily temperature of 518 stations from 1960 to 2011 in China. The results are summarized as follows： （1） The spatial distribution of MTPL varies regionally. MTPL is higher in most areas of Northeast China, southwest Yunnan Province, and the eastern part of Northwest China. MTPL is lower in the middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze River and Huang-huai Basin. （2） The spatial distribution of MTPL varies distinctly with seasons. MTPL is higher in boreal summer than in boreal winter. （3） MTPL has had distinct decadal changes in China, with increase since the 1970s and decrease since 2000. Especially in the northeast part of the country, MTPL has significantly increased since 1986. Decadal change of MTPL in Northwest China, Northeast China and the Huang-huai Basin may have a close relationship with the persistence of temperature anomaly. Since the beginning of the 21st century, MTPL has decreased slowly in most of the country, except for the south. The research provides a scientific foundation to understand the mechanism of monthly temperature anomalies and an important reference for improvement of monthly temperature prediction.     

江汉平原秸秆焚烧污染物排放的估算

为了解江汉平原地区秸秆焚烧的危害, 通过入户调查确定该地区主要农作物秸秆露天燃烧的比例, 用排放因子法估算2010 年该地区主要农作物秸秆焚烧排放的大气污染物量, 结合入户调查的结果、MOD/ MYD14A1 和GLC2000-China 的地表覆盖数据, 分析该地区农作物秸秆焚烧排放的时空分布。结果表明, 2010 年江汉平原秸秆焚烧共排放73.3 Gg (1 Gg=109g) PM2.5, 18.6 Gg OC, 3.27 Gg BC, 7763 Gg CO2, 238 Gg CO, 10.6 Gg CH4, 28.6 Gg NMHCs, 0.382 Gg N2O, 5.74 Gg NH3, 8.26 Gg SO2 和17.1 Gg NOx, 其中5 月、9 月和10 月是秸秆焚烧的高峰期。在所有县市中, 监利县、仙桃市和天门市是秸秆焚烧排放最多的3 个地区, 荆州市市辖区是单位面积农田上秸秆焚烧PM2.5 排放最高的地区; 在所有的农作物中, 水稻秸秆焚烧对排放的贡献最大, 其次是油菜和小麦。     

中国秸秆露天焚烧大气污染物排放时空分布

秸秆露天焚烧过程中释放的各种气态污染物和颗粒物,是我国大气污染的重要来源之一。本研究通过问卷调查和模型计算,确定了我国秸秆露天焚烧的活动水平,采用排放因子法建立了我国秸秆露天焚烧一次大气污染物的排放清单,并分析了其时间和空间分布特征。根据问卷调查结果,我国农村平均秸秆露天焚烧比例为18.59%,焚烧量最大的为农业发达的华东和华北地区,高峰在10月前后。2006年,我国生物质露天焚烧主要大气污染物的排放量为PM2.5217万t,BC4.9万t,OC48万t,SO26.0万t,NOx36万t,NMVOC87万t,CO731万t,CO215450万t,CH437.4万t,NH38.4万t。     

生物质燃烧对长春市区细颗粒物影响分析

为确定长春市周边地区生物质燃烧对市区细颗粒物污染的影响,采用2013年秋季至2014年冬季长春市劳动公园和净月潭公园2个监测点位的细颗粒物成份谱分析数据,以K~+为指示性指标,OC为参考性指标确定了长春市区细颗粒物污染在春秋季与生物质燃烧呈现强相关关系。而对于长春市市区,生物质燃烧影响为外来源影响,主要来自周边地区农田秸秆的露天焚烧。应结合长春市自然经济区域特点制定有效的管控措施应对春秋季节的秸秆集中大量焚烧,以减轻对长春市区细颗粒物污染的影响。     

基于蓄积量和产量的中国天然源VOC排放清单及时空分布

以中国植被为对象, 基于森林、草地资源清查和统计年鉴提供的各类植被蓄积量、产量资料以及《中国植被图(1:1000000)》提供的植被构成资料, 通过将蓄积量、产量换算成叶生物量, 并应用Guenther提出的光温影响模型估算中国各植物的VOC排放量, 建立了中国天然源VOC排放清单, 并探讨了VOC的来源组分和时空分布规律。结果表明: 2003年中国植被VOC总排放量为12.83 Tg, 其中异戊二烯7.45 Tg (58%)、单萜烯2.23 Tg (17%)、其他VOC 3.14 Tg (25%); 不同植物的VOC排放量差异较大, 各类型植被排放贡献率为森林 (61%)>灌丛(27%)>农作物(7%)>草地(5%); 南部和东北地区为中国天然源VOC主要排放区域; 天然源VOC排放存在明显的季节变化, 夏季排放量最大; 不同龄级森林对VOC排放的贡献有所不同, 中龄林贡献最多。     

Methane emissions from terrestrial plants over China and their effects on methane concentrations in lower troposphere

Methane (CH₄) is the most important greenhouse gas and reactive trace gas in the atmosphere. Recently, it has been reported that terrestrial plants can emit CH₄ under aerobic conditions, which may call for reevaluation of the inventory of CH₄ emissions in China. In this paper, those emissions over China and their effects on CH₄ concentrations in lower troposphere were investigated. Firstly, based on the work of Keppler et al., the aerobic plant CH₄ emission model (PLANTCH4) for China was established. And by using the database of normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) derived from NOAA/AVHRR, the distribution of net primary productivity (NPP) over China was simulated, and thereby, for the first time, the amount and distribution of the newly identified source in China were estimated. Secondly, with the aid of the three-dimensional atmospheric chemistry model system (MM5-CALGRID), the effects of the emissions were studied. The results show that the annual aerobic plant CH4 emissions over China amount to 11.83 Tg, i.e. nearly 24% of Chinese total CH₄ emissions. And the major fraction (about 43%) comes from forests. When those emissions are considered in modeling, computed countrywide mean surface concentration of CH₄ is 29.9% higher than without them, with a maximum increase of 69.61 μg·m⁻³ in the south of Yunnan Province. In conclusion, to study CH₄ emissions from terrestrial plants over China may have important implications for correctly estimating the contribution of China to global CH₄ budget, and may call for a reconsideration of the role of CH₄ in global and regional environment and climate change. Supported by National High-Tech Research & Development Program of China (Grant No. 2006AA06A307), National Basic Research Program of China (Grant Nos. 2006CB403706 and 2006CB403703), and the Program for New Century Excellent Talents in University, and Nanjing University Talent Development Foundation     

Spatial distribution of black carbon emissions in China

Based on the official statistics, locally measured emission factors, and the vehicular emission factor model most suitable for China, we developed a black carbon (BC) emission inventory for 2008 in China and at a spatial resolution of 0.5°×0.5°. In 2008, the total BC emissions in China were 1604.94 Gg. Industry and the residential sector were the dominant contributors, estimated at 695.03 Gg and 636.02 Gg of BC, respectively. Together, these two source types contributed 82.9% of the total emissions. Emissions from transportation were 194.63 Gg, accounting for 12.1% of the total. Since emission contributions from different sectors showed significant spatial diversity among the 31 administrative districts, we divided the districts into four categories: industry contribution district, residential contribution district, industry and residential contribution district, and transportation contribution district. As for energy consumption, coal and biofuel contributed 51.0% and 32.2%, respectively, of the total emissions. Spatially, BC emissions in China were unevenly distributed, higher in the east and lower in the west, corresponding to regional economic development and rural population density. High emission districts, covering 5.7% of the territory, contributed 41.2% of the total emissions. Shanxi, Hebei, Shandong, Henan, and Sichuan were the largest contributors to national BC emissions.     

天津武清冬季PM2.5含碳组分的逐时观测及分析

为了解京津冀地区冬季气溶胶含碳组分浓度及变化特征, 2011年12月至2012年1月在天津市武清区针对PM_2.5中元素碳(EC)、有机碳(OC)、水溶性有机碳(WSOC)及水溶性离子组分进行实时半在线的逐时浓度综合观测。观测期间EC和OC的平均浓度分别为6.0±4.8和21.5±19.2 μg C/m³, 分别占PM_2.5观测组分总浓度平均值的8%和30%。WSOC平均浓度为14.3±11.8 μg C/m³, 占平均OC浓度的67%。观测期间, 污染物浓度的大幅变化主要受气象条件控制, OC, EC和WSOC日变化特征相对不显著。观测期间大部分时间OC/EC比值稳定, OC/EC平均值为3.9。通过含碳组分与其他示踪组分的相关性分析, 初步判定武清冬季的气溶胶含碳组分主要来自生物质燃烧的一次性排放, 且影响当地的气团经过明显老化过程。约一半的OC来自一次生物质燃烧排放, 另一半来自二次生成。     

热裂解生物质炭产业化:秸秆禁烧与绿色农业新途径

 秸秆处理是当前中国农业与环境面临的重大挑战.分析了秸秆处理与禁烧存在的机制性困难,认为秸秆处理需要从市场经济规律寻求产业化解决途径,关键是能源利用下养分资源重回农业循环;介绍了生物质限氧热裂解新技术特点及其在秸秆处理中的优势,讨论了其产业主要产品--生物质炭的土壤和农业功效,分析了秸秆气炭联产多产品产业链的产业化前景,提出秸秆热裂解生物质炭产业化提供了既处理秸秆废弃物又促进农业增产优质安全的新技术选择,形成了以生物质炭土壤施用和生物质炭基肥料生产应用为中心的绿色农业新途径.建议国家进一步构建和完善秸秆禁烧大环境下秸秆处理补贴政策,加大秸秆收储配套服务,强化树立已经初现的秸秆生物质热裂解产业优势,通过绿色农业市场化发展带动解决秸秆问题,服务中国可持续农业.