以海岛站为背景研究城市化对气温变化趋势的影响

基于海岛站与附近城市站1972—2012年气温数据,采用线性倾向估计和最小二乘法,研究年际与季节气温变化趋势,分析城市化对气温变化的影响.结果表明:城市站和海岛站年平均气温变化趋势分别为0.29和0.2℃·(10a)-1,表明城市化加速了年平均气温升高;年均最低气温、最高气温增温趋势均为城市站大于海岛站,且平均最低气温增温趋势高于最高气温,呈现明显的非对称性;季节变化中,秋季和冬季的增温趋势较大.城市化效应对平均最低气温的影响较对平均最高气温影响显著.     

Climatology (communication arising): rural land-use change and climate

Kalnay and Cai claim that urbanization and land-use change have a major effect on the climate in the United States. They used surface temperatures obtained from NCEP/NCAR 50-year reanalyses (NNR) and their difference compared with observed station surface temperatures as the basis for their conclusions, on the grounds that the NNR did not include these anthropogenic effects. However, we note that the NNR also overlooked other factors, such as known changes in clouds and in surface moisture, which are more likely to explain Kalnay and Cai's findings. Although urban heat-island effects are real in cities, direct estimates of the effects of rural land-use change indicate a cooling rather than a warming influence that is due to a greater reflection of sunlight.     

近47年城市化发展对沈阳区域局地气候的影响研究

利用1959—2005年沈阳及周边郊区4县(康平、新民、法库、辽中)台站的气候观测资料,研究分析了沈阳城区、郊区气温、降水量、相对湿度、风速的变化趋势和特点。在此基础上,探讨了城市化发展对沈阳区域气候变化产生的影响。研究发现:1)近47年来,沈阳平均气温上升显著,其中冬季、春季增暖幅度最大,夏季最弱。同时,沈阳郊区增暖幅度略大于城区增暖幅度。2)沈阳年降水量、相对湿度、平均风速整体均呈下降趋势,降幅以平均风速最大,降水量最小。沈阳降水量的季节变化比较复杂,冬季降水量轻微增加。分析结果显示,沈阳城市化发展对区域局地气候产生了重要影响,尤其是近年来对郊区气温影响显著。另外,城市化进程对平均气温、风速的影响比其对相对湿度、降水量的影响更为显著、直接。     

近47年城市化发展对沈阳区域局地气候的影响研究

利用1959-2005年沈阳及周边郊区4县（康平、新民、法库、辽中）台站的气候观测资料,研究分析了沈阳城区、郊区气温、降水量、相对湿度、风速的变化趋势和特点。在此基础上,探讨了城市化发展对沈阳区域气候变化产生的影响。研究发现：1) 近47年来,沈阳平均气温上升显著,其中冬季、春季增暖幅度最大,夏季最弱。同时,沈阳郊区增暖幅度略大于城区增暖幅度。2) 沈阳年降水量、相对湿度、平均风速整体均呈下降趋势,降幅以平均风速最大,降水量最小。沈阳降水量的季节变化比较复杂,冬季降水量轻微增加。分析结果显示,沈阳城市化发展对区域局地气候产生了重要影响,尤其是近年来对郊区气温影响显著。另外,城市化进程对平均气温、风速的影响比其对相对湿度、降水量的影响更为显著、直接。     

Urbanization and heterogeneous surface warming in eastern China

With the homogeneity-adjusted surface air temperature (SAT) data at 312 stations in eastern China for 1979-2008 and the Defense Meteorological Satellite Program/Operational Linescan System (DMSP/OLS) nighttime light data, the spatial heterogeneities of the SAT trends on different scales are detected with a spatial filtering (i.e. moving spatial anomaly) method, and the impact of urbanization in eastern China on surface warming is analyzed. Results show that the urbanization can induce a remarkable summer warming in Yangtze River Delta (YRD) city cluster region and a winter warming in Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei (BTH) city cluster region. The YRD warming in summer primarily results from the significant increasing of maximum temperature, with an estimated urban warming rate at 0.132-0.250℃ per decade, accounting for 36%-68% of the total regional warming. The BTH warming in winter is primarily due to the remarkable increasing of minimum temperature, with an estimated urban warming rate at 0.102-0.214℃ per decade, accounting for 12%-24% of the total regional warming. The temporal-spatial differences of urban warming effect may be attributed to the variation of regional climatic background and the change of anthropogenic heat release.     

The climate influence of anthropogenic land-use changes on near-surface wind energy potential in China

There is considerable interest in the potential impact of climate change on wind energy in China. The climate change of near-surface wind energy potential in China under the background of global warming and its association with anthropogenic land-use changes are investigated by calculating the difference in surface wind speeds between the NCEP/NCAR reanalysis data and the observations since the reanalysis dataset contains the influence of large-scale climate changes due to greenhouse gases, it is less sensitive to regional surface processes associated with land types. The surface wind data in this study consist of long-term observations from 604 Chinese Roution Meteorological Stations and the NCEP/NCAR reanalysis data from 1960-1999. The results suggest that the observed mean wind speeds significantly weakened and the near-surface wind power trended downward due to urbanization and other land-use changes in the last 40 years. The mean wind energy weakened by -3.84 W·m^-2 per decade due to the influence of anthropogenic land-use change, which is close to the observed climate change （-4.51 W·m^-2/10 a）.     

1960－2011年华北平原城市化增温变化分析

利用华北平原9个气象观测台站1960—2011年地面和850 hPa高空气温资料分析华北平原的城市化变化特征。分析城市化对大中城市增温情况,以及应用高空与地面温度差的方法验证城市化增温的可行性。结果表明:地面与城市化增温速率和幅度均呈现上升趋势。大城市的城市化增温率以及城市化对地面增温的贡献率明显大于中等城市。冬春季是城市化增温作用最为明显的季节。1980—2011年的各台站城市化增温与1960—2011年整个时段相比有所变化。部分台站增温效应趋于增强,另外部分站的增温效应趋于弱化或消失。     

城市下垫面扩张对局地热力环流影响的模拟

采用WRF模式及其城市冠层参数化方案,选取2010年8月1日至3日晴天天气为模拟背景,两个算例分别为南京1993年土地利用类型及2010年土地利用类型分布。模式的模拟结果表明城市扩张使城区内2 m高度处气温有了一定幅度的增温,夜间24:00最大增温幅度达3 K。同时城市扩张使得城区风速明显减小,产生减速效应。对比两个算例风速的模拟结果,郊区风速均大于城区,风速低对物质的水平输送、扩散带来不利影响。由于城市热岛的影响,城区范围内产生有辐合上升的运动;随着城区面积的扩大,湍流动能强度及其影响范围也在扩大。2010年算例,正午湍流强度最大值与1993年算例相比较,由2.1 m~2·s2增至2.7 m~2·s2。城区内湍流运动较为强烈的区域,在一定程度上促进物质垂直方向上的输送与扩散。城市扩张后物质在城区上方垂直方向上湍流扩散得到加强,而在水平向下的输送受到抑制,更多地被阻隔在城市局地。     

Sensitivity experiments of impacts of large-scale urbanization in East China on East Asian winter monsoon

By using the global atmospheric general circulation model CAM4.0 including an urban canopy parameterization scheme,the possible impacts of large-scale urbanization in East China on East Asian winter monsoon was investigated via idealized numerical experiments.Results suggest that large-scale urbanization can cause a significant warming effect in both surface temperature and air temperature near the surface over most areas of East China.Meanwhile,large-scale urbanization also alters the surface energy balance,causing evident increases in net surface long-wave radiation and sensible heat flux as well as intensified surface thermal heating to the atmosphere.Forced by the surface thermal heating anomalies induced by the large-scale urban expansion,East Asian winter monsoon circulation exhibits distinct changes.Overall,the extensive urbanization over East China will weaken East Asian winter monsoon,but intensify winter monsoon in northeast China.     

郑州50年来的气温变化及城市化对其贡献率

利用郑州1951年以来的气温记录,采用统计方法和最小二乘法分析了郑州的气温变化特征。计算了气温变化的幅度．用孟津1961年以来气温变化与郑州作对比,并用两地增温率对比计算城市化对郑州城市气温变化的贡献率．结果显示1951年以来郑州市年平均气温变化总趋势是不断变暖,气温升高幅度约0．23℃／10年,年平均最低气温及春冬季节气温升温幅度最大,夏季气温却有降温趋势．1961年以来郑州年平均气温的城市化增温率为0．064℃／10年,城市化增温对郑州城市气温增加的贡献率为25％．郑州1951年以来气温的变化还主要是受区域背景气候的影响;受城市化影响在夏季最明显．     

城市边缘区划分方法初探

随着我国社会经济的发展以及城市化进程的加快,处于城市与农村结合部位的城市边缘区是土地利用变化最快、最显著的地区,城市边缘区的定量界定方法是学术界关注的热点之一.以景观多样性指数和土地利用类型比例为参考,以武汉市东湖高新技术开发区为研究对象,研究了该地区的土地利用情况,探讨划分城区、城市边缘区和农村的基本方法.     

Atmospheric science: tropospheric temperature series from satellites

There has been considerable debate about changes in the temperature of the troposphere measured using the Microwave Sounding Unit (MSU) instrument or radiosondes. Fu et al. linearly combine time series from two MSU channels to estimate vertically integrated 850-300-hPa temperatures and claim consistency between surface and free-troposphere warming for one MSU record. We believe that their approach overfits the data, produces trends that overestimate warming and gives overly optimistic uncertainty estimates. There still remain large differences between observed tropospheric temperature trends and those simulated by a climate model.     

Atmospheric science: stratospheric cooling and the troposphere

Satellite observations of tropospheric temperatures seem to show less warming than surface temperatures, contrary to physical predictions. Fu et al. show that statistical correction for the effect of stratospheric cooling brings the satellite-based estimates of tropospheric warming into closer agreement with observations of surface warming. Here we apply the method of Fu et al. to output from a state-of-the-art coupled climate model and show that simulated tropospheric temperature trends are consistent with those observed and that their method is robust.     

新型城镇化和房价对城乡收入差距的影响 ——基于省级面板数据的分析

基于2005—2019年的省级面板数据,运用固定效应进行逐步回归,研究多指标下的新型城镇化和房价对城乡收入差距的影响。实证结果表明:房价上涨加剧城乡收入差距,新型城镇化水平的提高抑制了城乡收入差距且间接削弱了房价对城乡收入差距的扩大效应;区域方面有较大差异性,中西部房价上涨加剧城乡收入差距,东部和东北地区房价的上涨缩小城乡收入差距;东、中、西地区新型城镇化水平的提高抑制了城乡收入差距,东北地区则加剧了城乡收入差距。为统筹城乡协调发展,政府应加大城镇化转型力度,出台政策调控房价,促进资源均衡配置。     

Contribution of stratospheric cooling to satellite-inferred tropospheric temperature trends

From 1979 to 2001, temperatures observed globally by the mid-tropospheric channel of the satellite-borne Microwave Sounding Unit (MSU channel 2), as well as the inferred temperatures in the lower troposphere, show only small warming trends of less than 0.1 K per decade (refs 1-3). Surface temperatures based on in situ observations however, exhibit a larger warming of approximately 0.17 K per decade (refs 4, 5), and global climate models forced by combined anthropogenic and natural factors project an increase in tropospheric temperatures that is somewhat larger than the surface temperature increase. Here we show that trends in MSU channel 2 temperatures are weak because the instrument partly records stratospheric temperatures whose large cooling trend offsets the contributions of tropospheric warming. We quantify the stratospheric contribution to MSU channel 2 temperatures using MSU channel 4, which records only stratospheric temperatures. The resulting trend of reconstructed tropospheric temperatures from satellite data is physically consistent with the observed surface temperature trend. For the tropics, the tropospheric warming is approximately 1.6 times the surface warming, as expected for a moist adiabatic lapse rate.     

Observed increase in local cooling effect of deforestation at higher latitudes

Deforestation in mid- to high latitudes is hypothesized to have the potential to cool the Earth's surface by altering biophysical processes. In climate models of continental-scale land clearing, the cooling is triggered by increases in surface albedo and is reinforced by a land albedo-sea ice feedback. This feedback is crucial in the model predictions; without it other biophysical processes may overwhelm the albedo effect to generate warming instead. Ongoing land-use activities, such as land management for climate mitigation, are occurring at local scales (hectares) presumably too small to generate the feedback, and it is not known whether the intrinsic biophysical mechanism on its own can change the surface temperature in a consistent manner. Nor has the effect of deforestation on climate been demonstrated over large areas from direct observations. Here we show that surface air temperature is lower in open land than in nearby forested land. The effect is 0.85 ± 0.44 K (mean ± one standard deviation) northwards of 45° N and 0.21 ± 0.53 K southwards. Below 35° N there is weak evidence that deforestation leads to warming. Results are based on comparisons of temperature at forested eddy covariance towers in the USA and Canada and, as a proxy for small areas of cleared land, nearby surface weather stations. Night-time temperature changes unrelated to changes in surface albedo are an important contributor to the overall cooling effect. The observed latitudinal dependence is consistent with theoretical expectation of changes in energy loss from convection and radiation across latitudes in both the daytime and night-time phase of the diurnal cycle, the latter of which remains uncertain in climate models.     

Impact of urbanization on changes in temperature extremes in Beijing during 1978–2008

To quantify the impact of urbanization on changes in observed surface air temperature and extremes, a homogenized dataset of daily mean, maximum and minimum temperature （Trn, Trnax and Train） observations at 20 stations in Greater Beijing （GBJ） from 1978 to 2008 is analyzed. In contrast with previous studies, a cluster analysis is done to objectively classify observing stations into four categories （urbanized, suburban, rural and mountain）, which is checked with remote-sensing night-light images since the 1990s. At urbanized sites, there is an added warming trend in annual mean Tm representing an average of 10.9% （up to 18.4% or 0.12℃/decade at the most strongly influenced site） of overall warming. Corresponding contributions for Train are 12.7% （up to 20.8% or 0.19℃/decade） and 24% for diurnal temperature range DTR （up to 37.4% or 0.149℃/decade） over the last three dec- ades. Although it has not had a significant impact on daytime records （Tmax）, urbanization has enhanced the increasing （decreasing） trend of extremely warm （cold） nights by an average of 12.7% or 2.07 d/decade （29.0% or 5.06 d/decade） at the urbanized sites since the 1970s.     

上海快速城市化不同阶段城市热场景观格局演变研究

本文以上海市为例对城市热环境的空间分布特点及不同城市化阶段的演变特征进行分析.研究表明:随着上海城市化的深入,热环境空间结构趋于复杂,不同的城市化发展阶段热环境格局呈现出截然不同的演变特征.结合景观格局指数与转移矩阵对热环境的演变规律进行分析得出:城市化高速发展阶段,主城区及近郊区内的低温斑块等级上升明显,热环境格局的聚合度显著下降,景观多样性指数明显上升.优化发展阶段,主城区内强热场面积下降,近郊或远郊地区强热场明显增加,总体热环境格局的聚合度及多样性指数变化趋势减弱.本次研究结果展现了城市化不同阶段中城市热环境格局的分布与演变特征,为科学制定应对城市热岛问题的措施提供科学的参考.     

Estimation of urbanization bias in observed surface temperature change in China from 1980 to 2009 using satellite land-use data

Since the 1980s,China has undergone rapid urbanization.Meanwhile,the climate has been warming substantially.In this paper,the urbanization effect on observed temperatures from 1980 to 2009 in China is estimated,based on analysis of urban land use from satellite observation.Urban land-use expansion(U) during 1980-2005 is applied as an urbanization index.According to these U values,stations are divided into three categories:(C1) intense urbanization around the stations;(C2) moderate urbanization around the stations;and(C3) minimal urbanization around the stations.Most C1 stations are in municipalities or provincial capitals,while C2 stations tend to be in prefecture-level cities.C3 stations are mostly in counties.The urban heat island(UHI) effect can be estimated if the urban effect on C3 is negligible.The warming of C1 or C2 relative to that of C3 represents their urbanization effects,assuming that the same larger-scale natural warming has affected each category.For C1,the local urbanization effect is 0.258°C/10 a over 1980-2009,accounting for 41% of the total warming;the trend at C2 is 0.099°C/10 a,or 21%.For all China,the urbanization effect is 0.09°C/10a,accounting for 20% of the total national warming.Winter urban warming is greater than in summer.The assumption of negligible urbanization effect on C3 is debatable,and so the true urbanization effect may equal or slightly exceed estimates.Further,the U index may have some uncertainties,for it is only one of the urbanization indices.However,it provides a new and direct estimation of environmental change,in contrast to indirect indices.     

珠三角城市化对大气边界层特征影响的数值模拟

利用WRF/UCM模式对珠江三角洲2008年秋季一次大气污染过程的气象场特征进行模拟。在模式中针对下垫面类型数据和人为热通量来设置敏感性试验以探讨城市化对大气边界层特征的影响。研究结果表明:城市化发展(包括城市土地利用类型的改变以及人为热通量的加入和增加)均能增强城市热岛效应和干岛效应,使夜间地面逆温现象更加显著,地面污染物容易积累;地表粗糙度的增加使风速减小,城市化使热岛环流增强,污染物难以扩散,这也是造成空气污染事件的原因;同时城市的发展能抬升白天和夜晚的大气边界层高度。