Memory processes during sleep: beyond the standard consolidation theory

Two-step theories of memory formation suggest that an initial encoding stage, during which transient neural assemblies are formed in the hippocampus, is followed by a second step called consolidation, which involves re-processing of activity patterns and is associated with an increasing involvement of the neocortex. Several studies in human subjects as well as in animals suggest that memory consolidation occurs predominantly during sleep (standard consolidation model). Alternatively, it has been suggested that consolidation may occur during waking state as well and that the role of sleep is rather to restore encoding capabilities of synaptic connections (synaptic downscaling theory). Here, we review the experimental evidence favoring and challenging these two views and suggest an integrative model of memory consolidation.     

Sorting receptor SORLA: cellular mechanisms and implications for disease

Sorting-related receptor with A-type repeats (SORLA) is an intracellular sorting receptor that directs cargo proteins, such as kinases, phosphatases, and signaling receptors, to their correct location within the cell. The activity of SORLA assures proper function of cells and tissues, and receptor dysfunction is the underlying cause of common human malignancies, including Alzheimer’s disease, atherosclerosis, and obesity. Here, we discuss the molecular mechanisms that govern sorting of SORLA and its cargo in multiple cell types, and why genetic defects in this receptor results in devastating diseases.     

Proposed effects of brain noradrenaline on neuronal activity and cerebral blood flow during REM sleep

Summary We propose that the observed increases of both neuronal activity and cerebral blood flow seen throughout the brain during REM sleep may be effects of decreased central noradrenaline release.     

Molecular and cellular mechanisms of T Cell development

The thymus is central to the establishment of a functioning immune system. Here is the place where T cells mature from hematopoietic progenitors, driven by mutual interactions of stromal cells and the developing thymocytes. As a result, different types of T cells are generated, all of which have been carefully selected for the ability to act in host defense towards non-self and against the potential to mount pathogenic self-reactive autoimmune responses. In this review we summarize our present knowlege on the lineage decisions taking place during this development, the selection processes responsible for shaping the T cell antigen-receptor repertoire, the interactions with the stromal components and the signal transduction pathways which transform the interactions with the thymic microenvironment into cellular responses of survival, proliferation, differentiation and, importantly, also of cell death. Received 12 June 2003; received after revision 22 July 2003; accepted 28 July 2003     

Proposed effects of brain noradrenaline on neuronal activity and cerebral blood flow during REM sleep.

We propose that the observed increases of both neuronal activity and cerebral blood flow seen throughout the brain during REM sleep may be effects of decreased central noradrenaline release.     

Selective suppression of rapid eye movement sleep (REM) by fusaric acid,an inhibitor of dopamine-β-oxidase

Résumé L'administration d'acide fusarique, un inhibiteur de la dopamine--oxidase, a supprimé électivement le sommeil REM, sans influence significative sur le sommeil lent. Le rôle de noradrénaline dans le mécanisme central du sommeil REM est discuté.     

Mechanisms of synaptic depression triggered by metabotropic glutamate receptors

Glutamate, by activation of metabotropic receptors (mGluRs), can lead to a reduction of synaptic efficacy at many synapses. These forms of synaptic plasticity are referred to as long-term depression (mGluR-LTD). We will distinguish between mGluR-LTD induced by pre- or postsynaptic receptors and mGluR-LTD induced by the locus of the expression mechanism of the synaptic depression. We will also review recent evidence that mGluR-mediated responses themselves are subject to depression, which may constitute a form of metaplasticity. Received 13 May 2008; received after revision 07 July 2008; accepted 11 July 2008     

Genetics of sleep and sleep disorders

Genetic factors affect sleep. Studies in twin pairs demonstrate that the strong hereditary influences on sleep architecture and some sleep disorders are transmitted through families. Evidence like this strongly suggests that sleep regulation receives significant influence from genetic factors. Although recent molecular technologies have revealed evidence that genetic traits or gene products trigger particular changes in sleep electroencephalogram activity, we are still far from finding candidate genes or multiple mutations responsible for individual sleep disorders. Sleep is a very complex phenotype. Genetic susceptibility and environmental factors should be also considered as contributors to sleep phenotype. The aim of this review is to present a current summary and future prospects for genetic studies on sleep and selected sleep-associated disorders. An erratum to this article is available at .