Mycorrhization of ponderosa pine in a second-growth Sierra Nevada forest

Ectomycorrhizal colonization and rooting characteristics were quantified in a mature ponderosa pine ( Pinus ponderosa Dougl. ex Laws.) stand in the western Sierra Nevada. Root length totaled 3835.9 m · m –2 of forest floor surface area, with 96% consisting of the fine-root fraction. Total root dry weight and volume were 2230.4 g · m –2 and 5807.4 cm 3 · m –2 of forest floor area, respectively, with 69% of the former and 75% of the latter accounted for by the coarse fraction. Fine roots were most prevalent in the upper 15 cm of the mineral soil profile, and their abundance declined with increasing depth. Coarse roots were most abundant at a depth of 15–30 cm. Ectomycorrhizal counts totaled 26,814 · m –2 of forest floor area, and an overwhelming preponderance was associated with the fine-root fraction. More than three-quarters of mychorrhizae resided in the upper 15 cm of mineral soil, with an overall trend of declining numbers with increasing depth. Roots and mycorrhizae were exceedingly scarce at a depth of 45–60 cm, and neither was found in the organic soil layer above the mineral profile. A necessary step in understanding the ecophysiological role of mycorrhizae in mature forests is to quantify their abundance in such settings, and the results of this study contribute such information for ponderosa pine.     

Behavioral activities and breeding success of Willow Flycatchers in the Sierra Nevada

Observing survival and how individuals allocate time can provide insight into a species' ability to tolerate environmental constraints. We studied the Willow Flycatcher ( Empidonax trallii ) in the Sierra Nevada to determine if there were behavioral differences between pairs that successfully produced offspring and those that did not. This information will advance understanding of why these birds are declining in the Sierra Nevada and contribute to recommendations that may help to conserve them. We studied birds in 13 meadows in 2000 and 2001 using continuous focal-animal observations. Of the 43 territories we observed, 11 were occupied by males who never paired with a female, leaving 32 pairs for analysis. Of the 32 pairs, 13 were successful at breeding on their 1st attempt, and 9 pairs failed at their initial try but were successful on their 2nd breeding attempt. Throughout the breeding season, Willow Flycatchers spent 77%-78% of the day loafing during territory establishment and nest building, and loafing reached a low of 49% of the time budget during the nestling stage. Unsuccessful pairs spent on average 34% more time perching than their successful counterparts, while successful pairs spent on average 48% more of their time on the nest than unsuccessful pairs. Willow Flycatchers doubled the time spent foraging during the nestling phase because they had to meet the daily intake requirements for their young and themselves. Our results suggest that birds that spent more time on the nest and less time vocalizing had a significantly higher probability of successfully producing young because they were able to protect nests from predators, nest parasites, and inclement weather.     

Habitat affinities of rodents in northeastern Nevada rangeland communities

From May 1978 through September 1980, baseline data for rodent populations were collected by livetrapping in the Saval Ranch area of northeastern Nevada. The objectives of this study were to determine species composition and relative abundance of rodents for the various range sites. The 3 most abundant and uniformly distributed species were deer mice ( Peromyscus maniculatus ), Great Basin pocket mice ( Perognathus parvus ), and least chipmunks ( Neotamias minimus ). Relative abundance indices and densities reported for most species were similar to those reported in other multiyear studies at similar sites. The composition and relative abundance / density of rodent species was variable among habitats and over time. Diverse rodent species within the sagebrush ecosystem have commensurately diverse habitat requirements that should be considered when vegetation management is planned. Annual population fluctuations and differences among similar habitats should be considered when researchers propose to test rodent population responses to livestock grazing or other habitat treatments.     

Classification and ordination of Coleogyne communities in southern Nevada

Woody plant community composition was analyzed throughout the range of Coleogyne ramosissima in the Spring and Sheep Mountain ranges of southern Nevada. The lower Coleogyne elevational boundary was analyzed in detail in Lucky Strike Canyon, on the eastern edge of the Spring Mountains. TWINSPAN (2-way indicator species analysis) identified 4 primary species and stand groups from the 2 mountain ranges (extensive survey). Analysis of DECORANA (detrended correspondence analysis) results indicated that elevation and soil depth were the environmental factors most significantly associated with distribution of species and stand groups in the extensive survey. Elevation was the only significant physical factor associated with distribution of species and stand groups in the intensive survey. Five vegetation zones form the 2 mountain ranges were identified based on their dominant species in 15 extensive transects. Coleogyne were subdivided into pure stands and upper and lower ecotones for further investigation of species distribution and environmental factors. Selected environmental factors appear to play an important role in structuring the Mojave Desert vegetation zones in southern Nevada.     

Reproductive ecology of Dusky Flycatchers in montane meadows of the central Sierra Nevada

Avian species with expansive ranges or those that occupy more than one vegetative association may vary in aspects of their life histories across their ranges. The distribution of Dusky Flycatchers encompasses a variety of vegetative associations, including riparian communities. However, much of the literature on this species details studies conducted in upland areas. Our objectives were to describe the breeding ecology and fecundity of Dusky Flycatchers nesting in montane meadows of the central Sierra Nevada, California. We monitored 36 territories and located 37 Dusky Flycatcher nests in 8 meadows. Average clutch size was 3.9 eggs. Egg laying, incubation, and nestling stages were 4, 15.4, and 16.4 days, respectively. Eighteen nests successfully fledged young, with an average of 3.3 fledglings per successful nest. Nest success was 43% and nest predation was the leading cause of nest failure. Estimated annual fecundity was 1.62 fledglings per pair; however, because all renesting attempts were not located, this should be viewed as the minimum annual fecundity. Dusky Flycatchers we monitored may have had higher fecundity than those nesting in upland areas because riparian areas often have higher arthropod abundances. While the importance of riparian conservation to riparian-obligate bird species is obvious, our study indicates that these areas also may be of value to Dusky Flycatchers that breed in riparian areas and upland areas.     

Selenium geochemical relationships of some northern Nevada soils

Soil samples, one from each of 10 locations in northern Nevada, were evaluated for redox potential, total and extractable selenium, phosphate, free iron oxide, total and ferrous iron. Mole fractions for extractable selenium species were calculated from redox potentials. Data were used to extrapolate general geochemical relationships for soil selenium at the sample sites. Results obtained from one sample per location allowed only the most general conclusions to be drawn. Soil phosphate levels, which affect the adsorption of selenite species on iron oxide by competing for adsorption sites, were not correlated with levels of extractable selenium in this study. This would suggest that selenium would exist in solution, having been displaced from adsorption sites by phosphorous. Ferrous iron, iron oxides, and redox potential had a combined effect on the level of extractable selenium at all sites. Soils in this study support selenite species that are not readily available to plants and therefore could not support vegetation adequate in Se.     

Pisolithus Tinctorius , a Gasteromycete, Assiciated with Jeffrey and Sierra Lodgepole Pine on Acid Mine Spoils in the Sierra Nevada

Basidiocarps of Pisolithus tinctorius , a gasteromycetous fungus adapted to harsh sites, were observed in association with Jeffrey and Sierra Lodgepole pine on acid mine spoils in northeastern California. Subterranean mycelial strands were traced from these basidiocarps to the root systems of the two pine species, which had ectomycorrhizae characteristics of those formed by this fungus in symbiotic relationships with conifer hosts.     

Composition and abundance of periphyton and aquatic insects in Sierra Nevada, California, stream

The species composition of periphyton and benthic insect communities and abundances of common taxa (&;gt;0.1&;#37; of individuals) were examined during snow-free months in Convict Creek, a permanent snowmelt- and spring-fed stream in the Sierra Nevada of California. The communities were highly diverse. The most abundant taxa in the periphyton were diatoms ( Achnanthes minutissima, Cocconeis placentula lineata, Cymbella microcephala, C. sinuata, Fragilaria construens, F. crotonensis , Navicula spp., Synedra acus , and S. rumpens ), except in late spring and summer when several seasonal blue-green algae ( Chamaesiphon incrustans, Lyngbya spp. and Oscillatoria spp.) are at their maximum densities. Most common periphyton taxa vary systematically in abundance with season, but relative abundances of taxa also appear to be influenced by streambed scouring and by concentrations of ambient nutrients. Data on population densities and length frequencies of larval and nymphal stages of common benthic insects and occurrences of pupal and adult stages were examined to determine life history patterns. Taxa hatching in winter and spring and abundant as immatures in late spring include ephemeropterans ( Epeorus longimanus, Drunella flavilinea , and Caudatella heterocaudata ), plecopterans ( Calineuria californica, Doroneuria baumanni, and Pteronarcys princeps ) and dipterans ( Cryptolabis sp.). Common taxa hatching in late spring or summer are the plecopteran Malenka ( californica? ) and the trichopterans Arctopsyche grandis and Rhyacophila acropedes . Several bivoltine and multivoltine ephemeropterans ( Baetis devinctus and B. tricaudatus ) and dipterans ( Simulium spp. and Chironomidae) have summer cohorts. Taxa hatching in late summer or autumn and most abundant in autumn include ephemeropterans ( Baetis spp., Ephemerella infrequens, Epeorus dulciana, Ironodes lepidus , and Paraleptophlebia pallipes ), trichopterans ( Hydropsyche oslari, Lepidostoma spp., Glossosoma califica, Micrasema sp., Brachycentrus americanus, Neophylax sp., and Rhyacophila vaccua ) and dipterans ( Antocha monticola, Pericoma sp., and Chironomidae). Major recurring events that may influence life history patterns and structure of the benthic insect community are (1) near-freezing, nighttime winter water temperatures and occasional anchor ice, (2) a prolonged period of high discharge in late spring and early summer (3) a brief summer, and (4) a prolonged period of moderate stream discharge in autumn when the substratum is stable and food is abundant.     

Factors influencing the frequency of nest parasitism by Brown-headed Cowbirds in the northern Sierra Nevada

Nest parasitism by Brown-headed Cowbirds ( Molothrus ater ) can negatively affect host populations. Landscape-scale factors, such as proximity to residential areas, equestrian riding stables, and grazing allotments, can affect the risk of nest parasitism as well as the abundance of Brown-headed Cowbirds. Recent increases in residential and recreational development along with a reduction in grazing allotments in the northern Sierra Nevada provide an opportunity to reevaluate factors that influence frequency of nest parasitism by Brown-headed Cowbirds. Frequency of nest parasitism increased as the distance to the nearest residential center and distance to the nearest equestrian riding stable decreased. Similarly, Brown-headed Cowbird abundance was negatively correlated with distance to the nearest residential center and distance to the nearest equestrian stable. To reduce the risk of nest parasitism, efforts should be devoted to (1) reducing further residential development at the wildland–urban interface and (2) educating landowners about bird feeders, which frequently attract Brown-headed Cowbirds.     

Review of selenium in soils, plants, and animals in Nevada

Selenium is critical in livestock nutrition; forage can be either potentially deficient or toxic in this element. Selenium is accumulated in excessive amounts by a relatively few species of plants. Several of these plants, termed indicator species, occur in the western Great Basin; however, selenium toxicity is not a problem in Nevada for domestic livestock. The detection of marginal dietary deficiencies of selenium is of much greater economic importance to the livestock industry than an excess of this element. Selenium occurs as a trace element in the composition of various minerals. Selenium levels are very low in volcanic rocks of recent origin. Accumulations of this element require concentration through secondary dispersion and subsequent sedimentation. Therefore, excesses of selenium are usually associated with siltstone, sandstone, or other sedimentary rocks. Selenium is usually found in soils as selenate, a water-soluble mineral. The selenium concentration of plants is directly related to the selenate concentration in soil. In soils low in selenate, the ability of plants to accumulate selenium is similar. In soils with high levels of selenate, indicator species accumulate 10 times as much selenium as other species. The foliage of most indicator plants is generally avoided by grazing animals. Deficiencies in dietary selenium are associated with the occurrence of white muscle disease, retained placentas, and general unthriftiness of animals. Insufficient dietary selenium can be overcome through injection, intraluminal pellets, or supplementation with salt mixtures.     

Biotic and abiotic factors influencing the distribution of Coleogyne communities in southern Nevada

Woody plant community composition was analyzed throughout the range of Coleogyne ramosissima in the Spring and Sheep Mountain ranges of southern Nevada. The lower Coleogyne elevational boundary was analyzed in detail in Lucky Strike Canyon, on the eastern edge of the Spring Mountains. TWINSPAN (2-way indicator species analysis) identified 4 primary species and stand groups from the 2 mountain ranges (extensive survey). Analysis of DECORANA (detrended correspondence analysis) results indicated that elevation and soil depth were the environmental factors most significantly associated with distribution of species and stand groups in the extensive survey. Elevation was the only significant physical factor associated with distribution of species and stand groups in the intensive survey. Five vegetation zones form the 2 mountain ranges were identified based on their dominant species in 15 extensive transects. Coleogyne were subdivided into pure stands and upper and lower ecotones for further investigation of species distribution and environmental factors. Selected environmental factors appear to play an important role in structuring the Mojave Desert vegetation zones in southern Nevada.     

Nesting ecology of Yellow Warblers ( Dendroica petechia ) in montane chaparral habitat in the northern Sierra Nevada

The Yellow Warbler ( Dendroica petechia ) is considered a riparian specialist in much of western North America, but in California it also breeds in a second habitat type: montane chaparral of the Sierra Nevada and southern Cascades. We monitored Yellow Warbler nests in montane chaparral and assessed their poorly known nesting ecology in this habitat. We also conducted point counts in upland habitat throughout the region. We determined habitat associations for Yellow Warblers based on nest site and point-count vegetation data; nests were predominantly in bush chinquapin ( Chrysolepis sempervirens ) and greenleaf manzanita ( Arctostaphylos patula ), and point-count abundance was most strongly associated with high overall shrub cover. The importance of montane chaparral for a number of shrub-dependent Sierran birds is well documented, yet the chaparral is threatened by various practices including fire suppression, closed-canopy-focused forest management, and understory fuels-reduction treatments. Although Yellow Warblers are far more abundant in wet mountain meadow riparian habitat in the region, we recommend that management of montane chaparral habitat consider this species and the requirements of other shrub-nesting birds.     

Peat depth of Sierra Nevada fens, and profile changes from 1958 to 1972 in Mason Fen

Peat cores along transects of seven minerotrophic peatlands (fens) in the Sagehen Creek basin were made in 1972. The areas were all shallow, sloping peatlands from 67 to 206 cm in maximum depth. Cores from one fen contained layers of charcoal and clay that suggested fire followed by fen regeneration. Profiles from Mason Fen suggested that the peat mass was moving downslope, creating splits and ridges with surface pools at right angles to the slope. Comparison of a profile made in 1958 with 1972 showed further evidence of downslope mass movement and expansion of the surface area.     

Species composition and habitat associations of benthic algal assemblages in headwater streams of the Sierra Nevada, California

Despite their trophic importance and potential importance as bioindicators of stream condition, benthic algae have not been well studied in California. In particular there are few studies from small streams in the Sierra Nevada. The objective of this study was to determine the standing crop of chlorophyll- a and benthic algal species assemblages present in the small 1st- and 2nd-order streams of the Kings River Experimental Watersheds (KREW, watersheds of Bull, Providence, Duff, and Teakettle Creeks) and determine the associations of these measures with stream habitat. We collected samples of benthic algae from rock substrata in September 2002 (7 sites) and 2005 (the same 7 sites plus 5 additional sites). Habitat and water-quality data were collected concurrently. Chlorophyll- a values ranged from 0.2 to 3.2 mg ? m –2 . Chlorophyll- a in the Bull Creek watershed was generally lower than in the other watersheds. Benthic algal assemblages were dominated by diatoms and cyanobacteria. We collected 79 taxa of diatoms in 2002 and 126 taxa in 2005. Diatom taxa richness in individual samples ranged from 15 to 47. Nonmetric multidimensional scaling analysis of arcsine square-root transformed proportional abundances of diatoms identified 3 groups of sites. Bull Creek sites were generally different from other sites (group 1), and the sites from Bull Creek were different in 2002 (group 2) and 2005 (group 3). Five taxa appeared to be particularly important in distinguishing groups: Achnanthidium minutissimum , Cocconeis placentula , Eunotia incise , Eunotia pectinalis var. minor , and Planothidium lanceolatum . Elevation, water temperature, pH, specific conductance, and canopy were habitat variables correlated with the differences in diatom assemblages among sites. Our results provide a valuable baseline for future studies of benthic algae in Sierra Nevada headwater streams and will be particularly important in understanding the effects of different forest restoration management strategies being tested in the KREW project.     

Brood parasitism and nest survival of Brown-headed Cowbird hosts at high-elevation riparian sites in the eastern Sierra Nevada, California

Deciduous riparian ecosystems in the western United States provide habitat for a higher density of breeding birds than reported for any other avian habitat type and provide habitat for more breeding bird species than adjacent uplands. On the east slope of the Sierra Nevada, riparian ecosystems make up Molothrus ater )—an obligate brood parasite that forages on bare ground and feedlots but typically commutes to distinct shrubland or woodland habitats for breeding. We examined nest survival, brood parasitism, breeding phenology, and causes of nest failure for birds at North Lake and Rock Creek: 2 high-elevation (>2500 m) riparian breeding habitats adjacent to recreational development and within cowbird commuting distance to additional potential foraging sites. Nest survival tended to be higher for host species at Rock Creek than for those at North Lake, but parasitism rates were not significantly different between plots. Of 21 open-cup nesting species, 12 were parasitized. We found the highest rate of parasitism (92%) for Warbling Vireos ( Vireo gilvus ) at North Lake, and parasitism contributed to lower total nest survival there (14%). For nearly all species, parasitized nests were less successful and produced fewer young than nonparasitized nests. However, predation was the leading cause of complete nest failure across all species and contributed to the lowest total nest survival estimates for Western Wood-Pewees ( Contopus sordidulus, 11%) and Dusky Flycatchers ( Empidonax oberholseri, 15%) at North Lake and for Dark-eyed Juncos ( Junco hyemalis, 15%) at Rock Creek. Nest survival was relatively high for Western Wood-Pewees (41%) at Rock Creek and for Yellow Warblers ( Dendroica petechia, 47%) at North Lake. We noted whether the arrival of pack animals at pack-station corrals contributed to variation in cowbird numbers at corrals or in parasitism rates at the 2 sites. Cowbirds occupied corrals before and after pack-stock arrival, and most host clutches were completed prior to pack-stock arrival at nearby corrals, suggesting that the presence of pack animals did not directly affect cowbird host species.     

Influence of soil frost on infiltration of shrub coppice dune and dune interspace soils in southeastern Nevada

The influence of soil frost on the infiltration rate of shrub coppice dune and dune interspace soils was evaluated near Crystal Springs, Nevada, using simulated rainfall. The infiltration rate of the coppice dune soil was greater than the dune interspace soil under frozen or unfrozen conditions. Because of different vegetation cover and surface soil characteristics, coppice dune and dune interspace soils responded differently to freezing, thus imposing a spatial and temporal response to infiltration rate. Infiltration rate of soils with porous concrete frost increased as the soils thawed during simulated rainfall, but soils with nonporous concrete frost allowed very little infiltration to occur. Both coppice dune and dune interspace soils that were classified in January as having granular frost had a higher infiltration rate than the same unfrozen soils in March.     

Environmental attributes correlating with density of blackbrush ( Coleogyne ramosissima ) shurbs in the Spring Mountains of southern Nevada

Discovery of distinct mid-elevational bands of blackbrush ( Coleogyne ramosissima Torr.) shrublands on desert mountain slopes in the Mojave Desert caused an investigation of the relationships between environmental factors and Coleogyne distribution. Environmental factors were quantitatively examined to determine which were significant predictors of Coleogyne density at upper-elevational limits (ecotones) in the Spring Mountains of southern Nevada. Path analysis revealed significant, direct causal effects of air temperature, soil moisture, soil depth, and percent litter cover on the distribution of Coleogyne . Specifically, air temperature was a significant positive predictor, while soil moisture, soil depth, and percent litter cover were significant negative predictors of Coleogyne density, with the effects of other environmental variables parceled out. Path analysis also indicated that indirect effects of soil pH, bulk density, compaction, percent pore space, organic matter, soil temperature, salinity, cryptogam, and percent bare soil and rock cover on Coleogyne density were substantially more potent than their direct casual effects. Environmental attributes associated with elevational changes correlate with and may determine the density of Coleogyne shrubs at upper ecotones in southern Nevada.     

Dynamic landforms and plant communities in a pluvial lake basin

Mapping units were developed based on landform, soils, and plant communities for the 40,000 ha of salt desert vegetation located below the maximum level of pluvial Lake Gilbert in Grass Valley, Nevada. Lake plain, beach, and bar features of the pluvial lake provide the dominant landforms. Fine textured lake sediments have produced salt- and Na-affected soils. The distribution and structure of plant communities are related to depth of the groundwater table, fluctuations in this depth, and the salt content of the groundwater. Wind and water erosion combine to continually evolve new environments for colonization by plants in this ecosystem.       

Subspecific identity of the Amargosa pupfish, Cyprinodon nevadensis, from Crystal Spring, Ash Meadows, Nevada

Samples of pupfish from Crystal, Marsh, and Point of Rocks springs, Ash Meadows, Nevada, were examined to determine the subspecific identity of Cyprinodon nevadensis presently inhabiting Crystal Spring. Meristic and morphometric analyses indicate that Crystal Spring is inhabited by C. n. mionectes. The presence of this subspecies is most likely explained by their precarious survival in the spring's outflow after they were eliminated by transplanted largemouth bass in the spring pool, and their subsequent reestablishment throughout the spring system after the extirpation of the bass.     

A classification of aquatic plant communities within the Nothern Rocky Mountains

A synecological study of aquatic macrophyte plant communities was conducted across northern Idaho and western Montana during the summers of 1997, 1998, and 1999. A total of 111 natural and man-made water bodies were sampled based on a stratification of environmental variables thought to influence plant species distribution (i.e., elevation, landform, geology, and water body size). Plant species foliar cover data were used to develop a hierarchical, floristic-based community type classification with TWINSPAN and DECORANA software. Six planmergent (conspicuous portion of vegetative plant body on the water surface) and 24 submergent (vegetative plant body found primarily underwater) community types were identified. Multivariate analysis indicated that all community types displayed significant differences in plant species composition, and the Sorensons floristic similarity between communities averaged 10% for planmergent and 8% for submergent types. Canonical correspondence analysis was used to inspect relationships between abiotic factors and plant species abundance. Results of this analysis indicated some relationships between species distributions and abiotic factors; however, chance introduction of plant species to water bodies is a process considered to be equally important to the presence of the community types described.