Chemical structure and biological activity of the Caenorhabditis elegans dauer-inducing pheromone

Pheromones are cell type-specific signals used for communication between individuals of the same species. When faced with overcrowding or starvation, Caenorhabditis elegans secrete the pheromone daumone, which facilitates communication between individuals for adaptation to adverse environmental stimuli. Daumone signals C. elegans to enter the dauer stage, an enduring and non-ageing stage of the nematode life cycle with distinctive adaptive features and extended life. Because daumone is a key regulator of chemosensory processes in development and ageing, the chemical identification of daumone is important for elucidating features of the daumone-mediated signalling pathway. Here we report the isolation of natural daumone from C. elegans by large-scale purification, as well as the total chemical synthesis of daumone. We present the stereospecific chemical structure of purified daumone, a fatty acid derivative. We demonstrate that both natural and chemically synthesized daumones equally induce dauer larva formation in C. elegans (N2 strain) and certain dauer mutants, and also result in competition between food and daumone. These results should help to elucidate the daumone-mediated signalling pathway, which might in turn influence ageing and obesity research and the development of antinematodal drugs.     

A blend of small molecules regulates both mating and development in Caenorhabditis elegans

In many organisms, population-density sensing and sexual attraction rely on small-molecule-based signalling systems. In the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans, population density is monitored through specific glycosides of the dideoxysugar ascarylose (the 'ascarosides') that promote entry into an alternative larval stage, the non-feeding and highly persistent dauer stage. In addition, adult C. elegans males are attracted to hermaphrodites by a previously unidentified small-molecule signal. Here we show, by means of combinatorial activity-guided fractionation of the C. elegans metabolome, that the mating signal consists of a synergistic blend of three dauer-inducing ascarosides, which we call ascr#2, ascr#3 and ascr#4. This blend of ascarosides acts as a potent male attractant at very low concentrations, whereas at the higher concentrations required for dauer formation the compounds no longer attract males and instead deter hermaphrodites. The ascarosides ascr#2 and ascr#3 carry different, but overlapping, information, as ascr#3 is more potent as a male attractant than ascr#2, whereas ascr#2 is slightly more potent than ascr#3 in promoting dauer formation. We demonstrate that ascr#2, ascr#3 and ascr#4 are strongly synergistic, and that two types of neuron, the amphid single-ciliated sensory neuron type K (ASK) and the male-specific cephalic companion neuron (CEM), are required for male attraction by ascr#3. On the basis of these results, male attraction and dauer formation in C. elegans appear as alternative behavioural responses to a common set of signalling molecules. The ascaroside signalling system thus connects reproductive and developmental pathways and represents a unique example of structure- and concentration-dependent differential activity of signalling molecules.     

A microRNA controlling left/right neuronal asymmetry in Caenorhabditis elegans

How left/right functional asymmetry is layered on top of an anatomically symmetrical nervous system is poorly understood. In the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans, two morphologically bilateral taste receptor neurons, ASE left (ASEL) and ASE right (ASER), display a left/right asymmetrical expression pattern of putative chemoreceptor genes that correlates with a diversification of chemosensory specificities. Here we show that a previously undefined microRNA termed lsy-6 controls this neuronal left/right asymmetry of chemosensory receptor expression. lsy-6 mutants that we retrieved from a genetic screen for defects in neuronal left/right asymmetry display a loss of the ASEL-specific chemoreceptor expression profile with a concomitant gain of the ASER-specific profile. A lsy-6 reporter gene construct is expressed in less than ten neurons including ASEL, but not ASER. lsy-6 exerts its effects on ASEL through repression of cog-1, an Nkx-type homeobox gene, which contains a lsy-6 complementary site in its 3' untranslated region and that has been shown to control ASE-specific chemoreceptor expression profiles. lsy-6 is the first microRNA to our knowledge with a role in neuronal patterning, providing new insights into left/right axis formation.     

A genetic pathway for the specification of the vulval cell lineages of Caenorhabditis elegans

Twenty-three genes have been assigned to particular steps in a genetic pathway for the specification of the vulval cell lineages of the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans. Mutations in most of these genes cause homoeotic transformations in the fates of individual cells, suggesting that these lineages may be specified by a series of decisions that distinguish between alternative cell fates. Fifteen of the genes function in a system involved in the intracellular response to the extracellular signal that induces vulval formation.     

Genetic pathways that regulate ageing in model organisms

Searches for genes involved in the ageing process have been made in genetically tractable model organisms such as yeast, the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans, Drosophila melanogaster fruitflies and mice. These genetic studies have established that ageing is indeed regulated by specific genes, and have allowed an analysis of the pathways involved, linking physiology, signal transduction and gene regulation. Intriguing similarities in the phenotypes of many of these mutants indicate that the mutations may also perturb regulatory systems that control ageing in higher organisms.     

Comparative genomic analysis reveals more functional nasal chemoreceptors in nocturnal mammals than in diurnal mammals

Natural selection has a critical role in the diversity of morphological traits. However, the genetic basis underlying the evolution and diversity of morphological characteristics, particularly in the context an organism’s behavior, lifestyle, and environment, is not well understood. The discovery of nasal chemoreceptors in mammals provided an opportunity to address this question. Here, we identify 4 nasal chemoreceptor gene families (V1R, V2R, OR, and TAAR) from horse, guinea pig, marmoset and orangutan genome sequences, respectively. Together with previously described mammalian nasal chemoreceptor gene repertoires, we found a significant positive correlation between functional gene number and morphological complexity, both in the main olfactory system and the vomeronasal system. The combined analysis of morphological data, behavioral data, and gene repertoires suggests that nocturnal mammals tend to possess more species-specific chemoreceptor genes and more complicated olfactory organs than diurnal mammals. Moreover, analysis of evolutionary forces revealed the existence of positive selection on the species-specific genes, likely reflecting the species-specific detection of odors and pheromones. Taken together, these results reflect a rare case of adaptation to circadian rhythm activity at the genome scale, and strongly suggest that the complexity of morphological olfactory organs and the diversification of nasal chemoreceptors in nocturnal mammals are under selection for the ability to perceive the variety of odors that nocturnal mammals may encounter in their particular dark environments.     

A cytosolic catalase is needed to extend adult lifespan in C. elegans daf-C and clk-1 mutants.

The dauer larva is an alternative larval stage in Caenorhabditis elegans which allows animals to survive through periods of low food availability. Well-fed worms live for about three weeks, but dauer larvae can live for at least two months without affecting post-dauer lifespan. Mutations in daf-2 and age-1, which produce a dauer constitutive (Daf-C) phenotype, and in clk-1, which are believed to slow metabolism, markedly increase adult lifespan. Here we show that a ctl-1 mutation reduces adult lifespan in otherwise wild-type animals and eliminates the daf-c and clk-1-mediated extension of adult lifespan. ctl-1 encodes an unusual cytosolic catalase; a second gene, ctl-2, encodes a peroxisomal catalase. ctl-1 messenger RNA is increased in dauer larvae and adults with the daf-c mutations. We suggest that the ctl-1 catalase is needed during periods of starvation, as in the dauer larva, and that its misexpression in daf-c and clk-1 adults extends lifespan. Cytosolic catalase may have evolved to protect nematodes from oxidative damage produced during prolonged dormancy before reproductive maturity, or it may represent a general mechanism for permitting organisms to cope with the metabolic changes that accompany starvation.     

Advances in research of mammalian vomeronasal pheromone perception and genetic components unique to vomeronasal signal transduction pathway

The recognition and perception of chemical signals from environments are very important for the survival of organisms. In mammals, general chemical signals are mainly detected by the main olfactory system (MOS), while pheromones are primarily perceived by the vomeronasal system (VNS). Pheromones are chemicals released and recognized by individuals within the same species, which then induce physiological and behavioral changes in social and sexual activities. In this review, we focus on the recent advances on research in mammalian vomeronasal pheromone perception and those genetic components unique to vomeronasal signal transduction pathway, including vomeronasal receptor V1R and V2R gene families as well as transient receptor potential channel 2 gene (TRPC2), trying to shed light on further study of the molecular mechanisms of mammalian pheromone perception.     

Adaptation to salinity in mangroves: Implication on the evolution of salt-tolerance

A plant＇s adaptation to its environment is one of the most important issues in evolutionary biology. Mangroves are trees that inhabit the intertidal zones with high salinity, while salt tolerance competence of different species varies. Even congeneric species usually occupy distinct positions of intertidal zones due to differential ability of salt tolerance. Some species have different ecotypes that adapt well to littoral and terrestrial environments, respectively. These characteristics of mangroves make them ideal ecological models to study adaptation of mangroves to salinity. Here, we briefly depict adaptive traits of salt tolerance in mangroves with respect to anatomy, physiology and biochemistry, and review the major advances recently made on both the genetic and genomic levels. Results from studies on individual genes or whole genomes of mangroves have confirmed conclusions drawn from studies on anatomy, physiology and biochemistry, and have further indicated that specific patterns of gene ex- pression might contribute to adaptive evolution of mangroves under high salinity. By integrating all information from mangroves and performing comparisons among species of mangroves and non-mangroves, we could give a general picture of adaptation of mangroves to salinity, thus providing a new avenue for further studies on a molecular basis of adaptive evolution of mangroves.     

Lethargus is a Caenorhabditis elegans sleep-like state

There are fundamental similarities between sleep in mammals and quiescence in the arthropod Drosophila melanogaster, suggesting that sleep-like states are evolutionarily ancient. The nematode Caenorhabditis elegans also has a quiescent behavioural state during a period called lethargus, which occurs before each of the four moults. Like sleep, lethargus maintains a constant temporal relationship with the expression of the C. elegans Period homologue LIN-42 (ref. 5). Here we show that quiescence associated with lethargus has the additional sleep-like properties of reversibility, reduced responsiveness and homeostasis. We identify the cGMP-dependent protein kinase (PKG) gene egl-4 as a regulator of sleep-like behaviour, and show that egl-4 functions in sensory neurons to promote the C. elegans sleep-like state. Conserved effects on sleep-like behaviour of homologous genes in C. elegans and Drosophila suggest a common genetic regulation of sleep-like states in arthropods and nematodes. Our results indicate that C. elegans is a suitable model system for the study of sleep regulation. The association of this C. elegans sleep-like state with developmental changes that occur with larval moults suggests that sleep may have evolved to allow for developmental changes.     

Mobilization of a Drosophila transposon in the Caenorhabditis elegans germ line.

Transposons have been enormously useful for genetic analysis in both Drosophila and bacteria. Mutagenic insertions constitute molecular tags that are used to rapidly clone the mutated gene. Such techniques would be especially advantageous in the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans, as the entire sequence of the genome has been determined. Several different types of endogenous transposons are present in C. elegans, and these can be mobilized in mutator strains (reviewed in ref. 1). Unfortunately, use of these native transposons for regulated transposition in C. elegans is limited. First, all strains contain multiple copies of these transposons and thus new insertions do not provide unique tags. Second, mutator strains tend to activate the transposition of several classes of transposons, so that the type of transposon associated with a particular mutation is not known. Here we demonstrate that the Drosophila mariner element Mos1 can be mobilized in C. elegans. First, efficient mobilization of Mos1 is possible in somatic cells. Second, heritable insertions of the transposon can be generated in the germ line. Third, genes that have been mutated by insertion can be rapidly identified using inverse polymerase chain reaction. Fourth, these insertions can subsequently be remobilized to generate deletion and frameshift mutations by imperfect excision.     

秀丽线虫基因敲除突变库中sec-10突变种系的筛选

从秀丽隐杆线虫(Caenorhabditis elegans)的基因突变库中筛选出目的基因的突变种系,并对其进行分子机制的研究,是研究不同基因及其蛋白产物作用机制的一项基本技术.以sec-10突变种系的成功筛选为例,详细描述如何通过PCR检测方法从笔者实验室所构建的国内第一个秀丽线虫基因敲除突变库(可进行多达几百次的筛选量)中筛选出目的基因的突变种系,同时证明突变库的可用性.根据sec-10基因序列设计多套针对不同靶点的含干扰引物的巢式引物,通过凝胶电泳正确判断扩增产物的特异性和干扰引物对长片段产物的抑制特性,以选择有效的检测引物.简化了线虫复苏后的饲养方法,以取代恒温恒湿培养箱的使用.通过纯和致死平衡子的引入,克服了sec-10基因突变致死所导致的无法稳定传代的问题.总结了从秀丽线虫基因突变库中筛选突变种系的注意要点,为国内其它线虫基因突变库的筛选提供重要的参考意见.     

Multiple intercellular signalling systems control the development of the Caenorhabditis elegans vulva.

Developmental, genetic and molecular studies indicate that multiple intercellular signalling systems interact to specify the types and spatial patterns of cells generated during the formation of the vulva of the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans. Two classes of evolutionarily conserved transmembrane receptors and a Ras protein function in these signalling systems. The biology of vulval development provides a framework for understanding how cell interactions control the development of animals as diverse as nematodes, insects and mammals.     

Stochastic and genetic factors influence tissue-specific decline in ageing C. elegans

The nematode Caenorhabditis elegans is an important model for studying the genetics of ageing, with over 50 life-extension mutations known so far. However, little is known about the pathobiology of ageing in this species, limiting attempts to connect genotype with senescent phenotype. Using ultrastructural analysis and visualization of specific cell types with green fluorescent protein, we examined cell integrity in different tissues as the animal ages. We report remarkable preservation of the nervous system, even in advanced old age, in contrast to a gradual, progressive deterioration of muscle, resembling human sarcopenia. The age-1(hx546) mutation, which extends lifespan by 60-100%, delayed some, but not all, cellular biomarkers of ageing. Strikingly, we found strong evidence that stochastic as well as genetic factors are significant in C. elegans ageing, with extensive variability both among same-age animals and between cells of the same type within individuals.     

马尾松松材线虫病抗性无性系的筛选和遗传多样性分析

【目的】 松材线虫病是松属致命性的世界检疫性森林病害。筛选和创新抗性遗传资源是马尾松抗松材线虫病育种的重要基础。松材线虫病重灾疫区自然淘汰存留下来的马尾松资源,可能是开展马尾松抗松材线虫病育种潜在的重要遗传基础,值得进一步深入挖掘、系统评价和开发利用。本研究通过对110个对松材线虫病具有抗性表型的无性系进行遗传多样性、生长性状测定和保存率调查,综合评价其在抗性育种中的潜在价值。【方法】 通过接种松材线虫对马尾松的1 201个初选无性系进行筛选,并对110个具有抗线虫表型的重选无性系进行遗传多样性RAPD和生长性状评价。从14对SCAR分子标记引物中筛选通用性强、多态性位点高的两组引物,用于MuPS(Multiplex-PCR of SCAR markers) 反应扩增和遗传多态性位点检测。基于79个MuPS唯一型无性系群体,采用Popgene 32软件估算的遗传多样性,结合生长量和存活率指标,评估该批遗传资源在马尾松抗性育种中的潜在价值。【结果】 初选的1 201个无性系(来自251个马尾松初选家系),经松材线虫接种筛选后,获得110个无性系(来自初选家系中的81个),由两组引物扩增得到92种MuPS分型。其中,有79个无性系为单一的MuPS分型所完全准确识别(占71.81%)。基于79个具单一MuPS分型的无性系群体遗传多样性分析表明,群体所有位点的平均有效等位基因数(N_e)为1.508 1个,Nei’s基因多样度(H)为0.302 3,Shannon多样性指数(I)为0.459 1。无性系体间遗传参数差异明显,N_e变幅为1.012 8~1.998 1,H变幅为0.012 6~0.499 5,I变幅为0.038 5~0.692 7。具有抗松材线虫病表型的110个马尾松无性系存活83个。保存无性系间其生长性状存在显著差异,树高、胸径和单株材积生长量变幅分别为4.6~10.7 m,6.7~21.7 cm和0.012 3~0.189 4 m³,生长量最大的休3-3号无性系立木材积(0.189 4m³)为最小的无性系广27-2的(0.012 3 m³)15倍以上。【结论】 马尾松1 201个初选无性系,经野外人工接种松材线虫的抗性筛选后,110个无性系表现出对松材线虫病有显著的抗性表型,占初选无性系的9.09%。这些经过抗性筛选的无性系在材积生长性状上达到了极显著差异水平。这意味着在抗性改良基础上,进行生长量改良的策略是可行的。与已有的天然和人工育种群体的遗传多样性参数相比,本研究虽然经初选和抗性复选淘汰了90%以上的无性系,仍保留了群体中较高的遗传多样性。综上,笔者认为这批初选资源经抗性筛选存留的遗传资源,在马尾松抗松材线虫病育种研究中具有明显的潜在价值。     

Specific aspartyl and calpain proteases are required for neurodegeneration in C. elegans

Necrotic cell death underlies the pathology of numerous human neurodegenerative conditions. In the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans, gain-of-function mutations in specific ion channel genes such as the degenerin genes deg-1 and mec-4, the acetylcholine receptor channel subunit gene deg-3 and the G(s) protein alpha-subunit gene gsa-1 evoke an analogous pattern of degenerative (necrotic-like) cell death in neurons that express the mutant proteins. An increase in concentrations of cytoplasmic calcium in dying cells, elicited either by extracellular calcium influx or by release of endoplasmic reticulum stores, is thought to comprise a major death-signalling event. But the biochemical mechanisms by which calcium triggers cellular demise remain largely unknown. Here we report that neuronal degeneration inflicted by various genetic lesions in C. elegans requires the activity of the calcium-regulated CLP-1 and TRA-3 calpain proteases and aspartyl proteases ASP-3 and ASP-4. Our findings show that two distinct classes of proteases are involved in necrotic cell death and suggest that perturbation of intracellular concentrations of calcium may initiate neuronal degeneration by deregulating proteolysis. Similar proteases may mediate necrotic cell death in humans.     

Caenorhabditis elegans gene ced-9 protects cells from programmed cell death.

The gene ced-9 of the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans acts to protect cells from programmed cell death. A mutation that abnormally activates ced-9 prevents the cell deaths that occur during normal C. elegans development. Conversely, mutations that inactivate ced-9 cause cells that normally live to undergo programmed cell death; these mutations result in embryonic lethality, indicating that ced-9 function is essential for development. The ced-9 gene functions by negatively regulating the activities of other genes that are required for the process of programmed cell death.