Recent progress of deep seismic experiments and studies of crustal structure in northern South China Sea

The South China Sea (SCS) is one of the largest marginal seas in the western Pacific. Its northern part has the features of a passive continental margin. The studies of deep crustal structure in this area are very important for understanding the tectonic nature, evolution history, basin formation of the northern margin, and the origin of the SCS. In the past decades, the deep seismic experiments of crustal studies in the northern SCS have gone through three stages, namely the sonobuoy, two-ship Expanding Spread Profile (ESP), and Ocean Bottom Hydrophone/Seismometer (OBH/OBS). Along the continental slope, the sonobuoy experiments provided useful information about the velocity structure of the upper crust, while the ESP data recorded for the first time the seismic signals from deep crustal structure and Moho interface. And the OBH/OBS profiles revealed the crustal structure in much greater detail. This paper first gives a brief historical review of these deep seismic experiments and studies, then a summary of the latest progress and important research results. The remaining problems and suggestions for further research work are presented as conclusive remarks.     

Deep crustal structure of Baiyun Sag,northern South China Sea revealed from deep seismic reflection profile

This paper discusses deep crustal architecture of the Baiyun Sag of the Pearl River Mouth Basin, northern South China Sea based on velocity analysis, time-depth conversion and seismic interpretation of the deep seismic reflection profile DSRP-2002. The profile was acquired and processed to 14 S TWT by the China National Offshore Oil Corp. (CNOOC) in 2002. It extends across the Baiyun Sag of the Pearl River Mouth Basin, from the northern continental shelf of the SCS to the deepwater province. As the first deep seismic reflection profile in the Pearl River Mouth Basin, this profile reveals seismic phases from basement down to upper most mantle. The Moho surface appears in the profile as an undulating layer of varying thickness of 1-3 km. It is not a single reflector interface, but a velocity gradient or interconversion layer. The crust thins stepwisely from the shelf to the continental slope and the abyssal plain (from north to south), and also thins under depocenters. The crustal thickness is only 7 km in the depocenter of the main Baiyun Sag, which corresponds to a Moho upwelling mirroring the basement topography. In the lower slope and the ocean-continental transition zone of the southernmost portion of the profile, three sub-parallel, NW-dipping strong reflectors found at depths around 10--21 km are interpreted as indications of a subducted Mesozoic oceanic crust. Crustal faults exist in the northern and southern boundaries of the Baiyun Sag. The intense and persistent subsidence of the Baiyun Sag might be related to the long-term activity of the crustal faults.     

Rifting process and formation mechanisms of syn-rift stage prolongation in the deepwater basin,northern South China Sea

Based on the latest seismic and geological data, tectonic subsidence of three seismic lines in the deepwater area of Pearl River Mouth Basin （PRMB）, the northern South China Sea （SCS）, is calculated. The result shows that the rifting process of study area is different from the typical passive continental margin basin. Although the seafloor spreading of SCS initiated at 32 Ma, the tectonic subsidence rate does not decrease but increases instead, and then decreases at about 23 Ma, which indicates that the rifting continued after the onset of seafloor spreading until about 23 Ma. The formation thickness ex- hibits the same phenomenon, that is the syn-rift stage prolonged and the post-rift thermal subsidence delayed. The formation mechanisms are supposed to be three： （1） the lithospheric rigidity of the northern SCS is weak and its ductility is relatively strong, which delayed the strain relaxation resulting from the seafloor spreading; （2） the differential layered independent extension of the lithosphere may be one reason for the delay of post-rift stage; and （3） the southward transition of SCS spreading ridge during 24 to 21 Ma and the corresponding acceleration of seafloor spreading rate then triggered the initiation of large-scale thermal subsidence in the study area at about 23 Ma.     

Identification and analysis of shear waves recorded by three-component OBSs in northeastern South China Sea

Structure models associated with P- and S-wave velocities contain considerable amount of information on lithology and geophysical properties, which can be used to better understand the complexity of the deep crustal structure. However, records of converted shear waves are less due to the speciality of seismic survey at sea and the rigorous generated conditions. The study on shear waves has always been a weakness for studying the deep crustal structures of South China Sea （SCS）. In this paper, eleven three-component OBSs were deployed along the Profile OBS-2001 in northeastern SCS. After the data processing of polarization and band-pass filter, converted S-wave phases were identified in the radical component records of nine OBSs. Taking the OBS7 as an example, identification and analysis of converted shear waves were presented and discussed in detail. A few phase groups, such as PwSc, PgSs, PnSc, ProS, and PwSn, were found coming from the deep crust or Moho interface by simple theoretical model calculation and ray-tracing simulation. The results not only provide the underlying basis for studies of S-wave velocity structure and Poisson＇s ratio structure, but also reveal the relationship between crustal petrology and seismology, which will be of importance for making full use of S-wave information in the future.     

Crustal structure of the southeastern margin of the Ordos Block

We use a profile made up of teleseismic receiver functions to study the crustal thickness and structure of the southeastern margin of the Ordos Block.The Mohorovii discontinuity(Moho) has been identified beneath all stations.Its depth gradually decreases towards the southeast,from about 43 km in the Ordos Block to ~30 km near the northern margin of the Qinling Orogen.Our results show clear lateral variations in the structure of the crust and the features of the Moho.Accordingly,the study region can be divided into four parts:(1) Beneath the Ordos Block,the Moho is visible and flat at a depth of ~40 km.The crustal structure is best characterized by stable cratonic crust.(2) In the Weihe-Shanxi Graben,the Moho is uplifted by about 3 km,which may be the result of upwelling of upper mantle materials.(3) Under the Xionger-Funiu Mountains,the Moho is flat at a depth between 36 and 33 km,but becomes shallower towards the southeast.(4) In the Hehuai Basin,adjacent to the northern margin of the Qinling Orogen,the Moho shows strong lateral variations with a mean depth of ~31 km.The crustal structure here is complex,which may indicate a complicated tectonic environment.Additionally,the Moho is clearly interrupted at two locations(beneath stations st11 and st18) near major tectonic boundaries.These results suggest that the structure of the deep crust along the southeastern margin of the Ordos Block has great lateral variability,which strongly affects the complex geological features on the surface.Furthermore,these results can help us understand the interrelationships of different parts of the southeastern margin of the Ordos Block.     

南海北部陆坡地形特征及其影响因素研究

南海北部陆坡位于南海北部大陆边缘,地质构造活动丰富,是大陆和深海进行物质和能量交换的重要过渡区。研究北部陆坡区复杂的地形地貌,有助于深化对南海北部陆缘海底地质活动与环境变化的认识,并为资源勘探与工程建设提供基础地质信息支撑。本研究基于全球水深地形图（General Bathymetric Chart of the Oceans,GEBCO）数据及实测多波束数据,对南海北部陆坡的地形地貌进行研究,识别出不同的地貌类型,并探讨其形成和发展的控制因素。研究表明,南海北部陆坡发育有海台、海山、海丘、海槽、海底峡谷以及冷泉地貌类型。南海北部陆坡地形地貌的发育和演化主要受控于构造活动及火山活动,而外动力地质作用如沉积输运、海平面变化及甲烷流体的活动等,都对研究区的地形地貌做了进一步的改造,使之更加复杂。     

Focal depth research of earthquakes in Mainland China: Implication for tectonics

Focal depth data of earthquakes in Mainland China are processed and analyzed in this paper, as well as the relationship between the focal depths and large-scale tectonic structures. As a basic parameter for earthquakes, focal depth is used to investigate deep environment of seismogenic regions, tectonic backgrounds for concentration and release of seismic energy, the inner crustal deformation and its mechanic features. Depth data of 31282 ML≥2.0 events with 1st class and 2nd class precision in Mainland China from Jan. 1, 1970 to May 31, 2000 are used to get spatial features of earthquakes distributed with depth and to provide average depth for each grid area throughout China. Researches show that the average depth (D-) for all the earthquakes used in this paper is (16±7) km, and (13±6) km and (18±8) km for the events in eastern China and western China, respectively. The area with the deepest focal depth is located in southwest Xinjiang region, near the western and southwestern ends of the Tarim Basin. The focal depth related to large-scale tectonic structures, for instance, = (33±12), (21±10), (14±7), (11±5) and (10±4) km in Tibet plateau block, Xinjiang block, North China, Northeastern China and South China, respectively. The earthquakes are deeper at the bounders of the integrated tectonic blocks, including the southwestern and northern brims of the Tarim Basin, southern brim of the Zhunge'r Basin and that of the Alashan block, as well as the eastern and western sides of the Edos block and the western brim of the Sichuan Basin. The earthquakes at the newly ruptured belts are relatively shallower, for instance, at the southwestern Yunnan seismic belt and the Zhangjiakou-Bohai seismic belt. The mechanic behavior, deformation and features for the crust and mantle structures are also discussed.     

Deep structure at northern margin of Tarim Basin

In this paper, a 2D velocity structure of the crust and the upper mantle of the northern margin of the Tarim Basin （TB） has been obtained by ray tracing and theoretical seismogram calculation under the condition of 2D lateral inhomogeneous medium using the data of seismic wide angle reflection/refraction profile from Baicheng to Da Qaidam crossing the Kuqa Depression （KD） and Tabei Uplift （TU）. And along the Baicheng to Da Qaidam profile, 4 of the 10 shot points are located in the northern margin of the TB. The results show that the character of the crust is uniform on the whole between the KD and TU, but the depth of the layers, thickness of the crust and the velocity obviously vary along the profile. Thereinto, the variation of the crust thickness mainly occurs in the middle and lower crust. The Moho has an uplifting trend near the Baicheng shot point in KD and Luntai shot point in TU, and the thickness of the crust reduces to 42 km and 47 km in these two areas, respectively. The transition zone between the KD and TU has a thickest crust, up to 52 km. In this transition zone, there are high velocity anoma- lies in the upper crust, and low velocity anomalies in the lower crust, these velocity anomalies zone is near vertical, and the sediment above them is thicker than the other areas. According to the velocity distributions, the profile can be divided into three sections： KD, TU and transition zone between them. Each section has a special velocity structural feature, the form of the crystalline basement and the relationship between the deep structure and the shallow one. The differences of velocity and tectonic between eastern and western profile in the northern margin of the Tarim Basin （NMTB） may suggest different speed and intensity of the subduction from the Tarim basin to the Tianshan orogenic belt （TOB）.     

Cenozoic stratigraphy of Taiwan: Window into rifting, stratigraphy and paleoceanography of South China Sea

Shallow marine sequences of the northern South China Sea (SCS) are uplifted and exposed by plate convergence in the Taiwan mountain belt. These deposits provide detailed geological information about the rifting event, stratigraphy, sedimentology, paleoclimate and paleoceanography of the shallow SCS to compare with what are recorded in the ODP 1148 deep-sea core. Seismic surveys and marine micropalentological studies show that Eocene sequences in the offshore Taiwan Strait and onland Taiwan mountain belt are all deposited in rifting basins and are covered unconformably by the Late Oligocene-Neogene post-rifting strata. Between syn-rifting and post-rifting sequences, there is a regional break-up unconformity throughout the island. Early Oligocene and Late Eocene strata are missing along the break-up unconformity equivalent to the T7 unconformity in the Pearl River Mouth Basin off south China. This may suggest that the SCS oceanic crust could have initiated between 33 and 39 Ma. Neither obvious stratigraphic gap nor slumping features are found in the Oligocene-Miocene transition interval of Taiwan. This observation highly contrasts with what has been documented from the ODP 1148 deep-sea core. This suggests that the stratigraphic gap and slumping features could only be recorded in the SCS deep sea region, but not in the shallow shelf near Taiwan. Compared to the Middle Miocene paleoceanographic re-organization events in the SCS deep sea, the geological history of the Taiwan shallow sequence shows changes of in sedimentation and faunal composition. Due to the Antarctic glacial expansion at~14 Ma, Middle to late Miocene strata of the Western Foothills show progressive regression sedimentations associated with a decrease of benthic foraminif-eral abundance and a sharp faunal turnover event. Many Early-Middle Miocene endemic benthic foraminifers were extinct in 14-13 Ma and new benthic foraminifers of the Kuroshio Current fauna appeared from 10.2 Ma, comparable with new occurrence of Modern benthic foraminifers at 9 Ma in the Java Sea area. This reveals that the Western Boundary Kuroshio Current in the North Pacific could initiate from 10-9 Ma due to closures of the Indo-Pacific seaways by convergent tectonics between the Australian Continent and the Indonesian Arc in 12-8 Ma. Subduction of the SCS oceanic lithosphere since the Middle Miocene resulted in formation of the Hengchun Ridge accretionary prism and the North Luzon Arc. Occurrence of these two bathymetric highs ( 2400 m) since the Middle Miocene and closures of the inter-arc passages in the North Luzon arc in the last 3.5 Ma would control the water exchanges between the West Pacific and the deep SCS. Accordingly, the tectonic evolution in the Central Range-Hengchun Peninsula accretionary prism and the arc-forearc Coastal Range not only control directly the route for water exchanges between the West Pacific and the SCS, but also indirectly shows a great influence on the geochemistry of deep SCS waters. The latter is best shown by much negative carbon isotope values of benthic foraminifers in the ODP 1148 deep-sea core than the West Pacific records in the last 14 Ma.     

A deep seismic sounding profile across the Tianshan Mountains

The deep seismic sounding profile across the Tianshan Mountains revealed a two-layer crustal structure in the Tianshregion, namely the lower and upper crusts. Lateral variations of layer velocity and thickness are evidently shown. Low-velocity layers spread discontinuously at the bottom of the upper crust. The Moho depth is 47 km in the Kuytun area and 50 km in the Xayar area. In the Tianshan Mountains, the Moho becomes deeper with the maximum depth of 62 km around the boundary between the southern and northern Tianshan Mountains. The average velocity ranges from 6.1 to 6.3 km/s in the crust and 8.15 km/s at the top of the upper mantle. Two groups of reliable reflective seismic phases of the Moho (Pm1 and Pm2) are recognized on the shot record section of the Kuytun area. A staked and offset region, 20-30 km long, is displayed within a shot-geophone distance of 190-210 km in Pm1 and Pm2. Calculation shows that the Moho is offset by 10 km in the northern Tianshan region, 62 km deep in the south while 52 km deep in the north, and plunges northwards. In comparison with typical collisional orogenic belts, the structure of the Moho beneath the Tianshan Mountains presents a similar pattern. This can be used to explain the subduction of the Tarim plate towards the Tianshan Mountains. This intracontinental subduction is considered the dynamic mechanism of the Cenozoic uplifting of the Tianshan Mountains. The discovery of seismic phases Pm1 and Pm2 serves as the seismological evidence for the northward subduction of the Tarim plate.     

基于松辽盆地基底构造研究的地震资料处理方法

为准确利用松辽盆地深层地震资料的有效反射信息来研究盆地基底构造特征,通过分析松辽盆地南部深层地震地质条件和地震资料的特点,利用多套地震数据处理系统的优势模块,重新进行了深层资料处理研究.结果表明:采用恰当的静校正、串联去噪、有效信号加强、速度分析和偏移归位等技术是获取高品质深部地震剖面的关键,并在此基础上提出了一套较适用于深层地震资料处理的方法,这些成果为今后其它地区的深层地震地质研究提供了重要的指导作用.     

The propagation of seafloor spreading in the southwestern subbasin, South China Sea

On the basis of the summary of basic characteristics of propagation, the dynamic model of the tectonic evolution in the South-western Subbasin (SWSB), South China Sea (SCS), has been established through high resolution multi-beam swatch bathymetry and multi-channel seismic profiles, combined with magnetic anomaly analysis. Spreading propagates from NE to SW and shows a transition from steady seafloor spreading, to initial seafloor spreading, and to continental rifting in the southwest end. The spreading in SWSB (SCS) is tectonic dominated, with a series of phenomena of inhomogeneous tectonics and sedimentation.     

Factors affecting the abundance and community structureof the phytoplankton in northern South China Sea in the summerof 2008： a biomarker study

Phytoplankton biomarkers were analyzedusing suspended particles collected from the northernSouth China Sea （SCS） during the summer cruise of2008, with the goal of understanding the algal communitystructure and biomass distribution pattern in the summerseason. The results indicated that the distribution of algalbiomarkers in surface water of SCS was impacted andconstrained by the local hydrological settings： the highbiological community generally appeared in Pearl Riverestuaries, southwestern off Taiwan island and southeast-em off Hainan Island, while the relatively lower biomasswas found in the deep basin and strait areas. Diatomswere the dominant phytoplankton species, which werefollowed by dinoflagellates. Coccolithophorid biomassgradually increased toward the open ocean. The presentwork indicated that the algal biomarkers effectively doc-umented the variability of the phytoplankton biomass andcommunity structure as well as their linkage with theoceanic dynamics in SCS during summer 2008. Thisresearch provided not only the foundation for the appli-cation of algal lipids in the modem ocean ecosystem, butalso the basis for the reconstruction of the past oceanicalgal community structures.     

Evolution of the South China Sea and monsoon history revealed in deep-sea records

As the third summary report of ODP Leg 184 to the South China Sea (SCS), this paper discusses the evolution of the East Asian monsoon and the SCS basin. A multi-proxy approach, involving geochemistry, micropale-ontology, pollen and other analyses, was adopted for reconstructing the evolutionary history of the East Asian monsoon, which was characterized by a series of paleo-climate events especially at 8, 3.2, 2.2 and 0.4 Ma. The new record indicates similar stages in the development of the East and South Asian monsoons, with an enhanced winter monsoon over East Asia being the major difference. The rich spectrums of monsoon variability from the southern SCS also reveal other characteristic features of the low latitude ocean. Evidence for the evolution of the SCS includes the hemipelagic Oligocene sediments, implying the existence of deep water environments during the early seafloor spreading stage of the SCS basin. The four major unconformities and some remarkabl ediagenetic features in upper Oligocene deposits indicate the strongest tectonic events in the region. From a careful comparison of lithologies and sedimentation rates, we conclude that the prominent differences in sedimentary environments between the southern and northern SCS were established only by ～3 Ma.     

柴达木盆地南北推覆构造概论

柴达木盆地南北地区,可以划分出两个巨型推覆构造带,分别称为柴北缘推覆构造带和东昆仑推覆构造带。其间的柴达木盆地形成一个相对的应变减弱区(低应变带)。两大推覆构造带在相同力源作用下统一构成了青海省北部的基本构造格局,成为华北板块的南部边缘带,是华北板块与南华板块碰撞拼合形成的浅部构造变形的产物,也是南北板块拼合的证据。     

Exploration technology and development trend of Daqing Oilfield

Exploration for oil and deep gas in northern Songliao Basin,complex rift basin—Hailaer Basin,and Yi-Shu Graben in peripheral basin has technical challenge.Researches on supporting technology including seismic acquisition,processing and interpretation,logging and drilling are performed to establish high resolution 3D seismic technology for lithologic reservoir,deep volcanic rock and complex rift basin,reservoir evaluation and stimulation technology for low permeability reservoir,volcanic reservoir and complex rift reservoir,and drilling technology for deep volcanic rock,providing technical support for reserves increase in northern Songliao Basin,large gas reservoirs discovery in deep volcanic rock and exploration progress in complex rift basin.Next-step development trend of exploration technology is proposed to meet the demand of more technical challenges in the future.     

Crustal P-wave velocity structure in Lower Yangtze region： Reinterpretation of Fuliji-Fengxian deep seismic sounding profile

A deep seismic sounding profile in this paper, from Fuliji in Anhui Province to Fengxian of Shanghai City, is located at eastern China (Fig. 1). The field work was jointly accomplished by the Chinese Geological and Mineral Bureau, the China Seismological …     

柴北缘马海东地区双向逆冲地质结构及油气地质意义

柴达木盆地北缘马海东地区具有独特的地质背景,油气成藏条件复杂,长期以来一直评价较低。通过建立双向逆冲地质结构模型,恢复中侏罗世原型盆地,认为马海东地区受马仙、赛南-绿南断裂的双向逆冲作用控制,形成了上、中、下三层纵向叠置的复杂地质结构。其中,下结构单元主要为逆掩的尕西凹陷原地沉积体,保留了中侏罗世深湖-半深湖相优质烃源岩,且受逆冲叠瓦影响,厚度纵向叠加,具有较大资源潜力。马仙断裂具备良好的垂向输导能力,因此马海东地区具备了深部发育有效烃源岩和形成“下生上储”油气藏的有利条件。山古1井钻探揭示了马海东地区构造地层油气藏,展示了该区良好的勘探潜力,证实了双向逆冲地质结构的合理性,对带动柴北缘地区的油气勘探具有重要意义。     

柴达木盆地断裂发育特征及其动力学机制探讨

以精细地震解释为依托,以平衡剖面技术为手段,对柴达木盆地的地质发展演化史及在不同构造动力学背景下形成的断裂构造系统进行了分析。分析表明,在“挤压+走滑”的区域应力场作用下,柴达木盆地形成北部、南部和西北部3大挤压走滑断裂系统,断裂以逆断层和走滑断层为主,并伴有少量的同沉积正断层、滑脱断层、反转断层等。平衡剖面复原表明,柴达木盆地断裂的形成演化主要有3类模式：（1） 断裂在中新世（N1）定型;（2） 断裂在上新世(N2)—第四纪(Q)期间发育形成;（3）在盆地形成演化过程中一直都在活动的长期发育的断裂。这些断裂的生成和发展经历了侏罗纪的扩张、古近纪的初步挤压反转、新近纪大幅度逆冲走滑、第四纪最终定型等阶段。