The structure of Venus' middle atmosphere and ionosphere

The atmosphere and ionosphere of Venus have been studied in the past by spacecraft with remote sensing or in situ techniques. These early missions, however, have left us with questions about, for example, the atmospheric structure in the transition region from the upper troposphere to the lower mesosphere (50-90 km) and the remarkably variable structure of the ionosphere. Observations become increasingly difficult within and below the global cloud deck (<50 km altitude), where strong absorption greatly limits the available investigative spectrum to a few infrared windows and the radio range. Here we report radio-sounding results from the first Venus Express Radio Science (VeRa) occultation season. We determine the fine structure in temperatures at upper cloud-deck altitudes, detect a distinct day-night temperature difference in the southern middle atmosphere, and track day-to-day changes in Venus' ionosphere.     

South-polar features on Venus similar to those near the north pole

Venus has no seasons, slow rotation and a very massive atmosphere, which is mainly carbon dioxide with clouds primarily of sulphuric acid droplets. Infrared observations by previous missions to Venus revealed a bright 'dipole' feature surrounded by a cold 'collar' at its north pole. The polar dipole is a 'double-eye' feature at the centre of a vast vortex that rotates around the pole, and is possibly associated with rapid downwelling. The polar cold collar is a wide, shallow river of cold air that circulates around the polar vortex. One outstanding question has been whether the global circulation was symmetric, such that a dipole feature existed at the south pole. Here we report observations of Venus' south-polar region, where we have seen clouds with morphology much like those around the north pole, but rotating somewhat faster than the northern dipole. The vortex may extend down to the lower cloud layers that lie at about 50 km height and perhaps deeper. The spectroscopic properties of the clouds around the south pole are compatible with a sulphuric acid composition.     

雷暴单体的对流强度对电荷结构的影响

利用三维雷暴云动力—电耦合数值模式,通过改变中心扰动位温,设置敏感性试验组,分析探讨雷暴单体对流强度对电荷结构的影响。结果表明:雷暴单体对流强度随着扰动位温的增加而增加。对流强度不同,其空间电荷结构也明显不同,但始终存在底部次正电荷区。当对流较弱时,雷暴电荷结构简单,只有主负电荷区和次正电荷区,无主正电荷区。在中等强度的对流雷暴中,雷暴内基本呈正常三极性电荷结构,且主负电荷区有上、下两个明显的电荷中心,上部中心的电荷密度更大。在强雷暴单体中,除了正常的三极性结构以外,次正电荷区以下出现了小范围弱的负电荷区,云顶出现了负屏蔽层,从下到上呈现出正负交替的五层,是电荷结构最复杂的阶段。这主要是由于云上部的正电荷区持续时间较长,电荷密度较大,增强了对周围大气中自由离子的吸引,自由离子被吸引到云边界附着到粒子上,在云顶形成了负屏蔽电荷层。同时,由于对流强,霰粒子可以得到更快的增长,固态降水增强,下沉气流中的霰通过与云滴的感应碰撞形成了云底部短时的弱负电荷区。     

潮汐锁相行星的大气环流与气候

红矮星是宇宙中数量最多的恒星,其表面辐射温度比太阳的辐射温度低得多,因此,红矮星的宜居带与恒星的距离非常近．因为距离其恒星较近,在强大引力的作用下,位于红矮星宜居带内的宜居行星很可能是潮汐锁相行星．锁相行星的特征是其一侧永远面对恒星,另一侧则永远背对恒星,从而形成极端不均匀的加热．我们在本文中使用一个真实的大气环流模式与平板海洋相耦合来研究锁相行星表面的气候要素和大气环流特征．我们特别针对两种自转速度进行了模拟试验．结果发现,在慢速自转条件下（自转和公转周期均为243天）,大气环流基本是热力驱动的下层辐合和上层辐散的运动,行星的表面仅有恒星直射点附近比较湿润,其他区域均比较干燥,背阳面尤其寒冷．在快速自转条件下（自转和公转周期均为l天）,科里奥利力的作用比较显著,大气环流以纬向西风为主,并呈现波动特征,赤道上空出现超级旋转的西风急流,湿润区域显著扩大．EP通量诊断分析表明,赤道超级旋转急流是由于热带Rossby波随高度向极地方向传播所产生的EP通量在赤道附近的辐散造成的．     

Influence of the Gulf Stream on the troposphere

The Gulf Stream transports large amounts of heat from the tropics to middle and high latitudes, and thereby affects weather phenomena such as cyclogenesis and low cloud formation. But its climatic influence, on monthly and longer timescales, remains poorly understood. In particular, it is unclear how the warm current affects the free atmosphere above the marine atmospheric boundary layer. Here we consider the Gulf Stream's influence on the troposphere, using a combination of operational weather analyses, satellite observations and an atmospheric general circulation model. Our results reveal that the Gulf Stream affects the entire troposphere. In the marine boundary layer, atmospheric pressure adjustments to sharp sea surface temperature gradients lead to surface wind convergence, which anchors a narrow band of precipitation along the Gulf Stream. In this rain band, upward motion and cloud formation extend into the upper troposphere, as corroborated by the frequent occurrence of very low cloud-top temperatures. These mechanisms provide a pathway by which the Gulf Stream can affect the atmosphere locally, and possibly also in remote regions by forcing planetary waves. The identification of this pathway may have implications for our understanding of the processes involved in climate change, because the Gulf Stream is the upper limb of the Atlantic meridional overturning circulation, which has varied in strength in the past and is predicted to weaken in response to human-induced global warming in the future.     

Enhanced atmospheric loss on protoplanets at the giant impact phase in the presence of oceans

The atmospheric compositions of Venus and Earth differ significantly, with the venusian atmosphere containing about 50 times as much 36Ar as the atmosphere on Earth. The different effects of the solar wind on planet-forming materials for Earth and Venus have been proposed to account for some of this difference in atmospheric composition, but the cause of the compositional difference has not yet been fully resolved. Here we propose that the absence or presence of an ocean at the surface of a protoplanet during the giant impact phase could have determined its subsequent atmospheric amount and composition. Using numerical simulations, we demonstrate that the presence of an ocean significantly enhances the loss of atmosphere during a giant impact owing to two effects: evaporation of the ocean, and lower shock impedance of the ocean compared to the ground. Protoplanets near Earth's orbit are expected to have had oceans, whereas those near Venus' orbit are not, and we therefore suggest that remnants of the noble-gas rich proto-atmosphere survived on Venus, but not on Earth. Our proposed mechanism explains differences in the atmospheric contents of argon, krypton and xenon on Venus and Earth, but most of the neon must have escaped from both planets' atmospheres later to yield the observed ratio of neon to argon.     

Little or no solar wind enters Venus' atmosphere at solar minimum

Venus has no significant internal magnetic field, which allows the solar wind to interact directly with its atmosphere. A field is induced in this interaction, which partially shields the atmosphere, but we have no knowledge of how effective that shield is at solar minimum. (Our current knowledge of the solar wind interaction with Venus is derived from measurements at solar maximum.) The bow shock is close to the planet, meaning that it is possible that some solar wind could be absorbed by the atmosphere and contribute to the evolution of the atmosphere. Here we report magnetic field measurements from the Venus Express spacecraft in the plasma environment surrounding Venus. The bow shock under low solar activity conditions seems to be in the position that would be expected from a complete deflection by a magnetized ionosphere. Therefore little solar wind enters the Venus ionosphere even at solar minimum.     

A dynamic upper atmosphere of Venus as revealed by VIRTIS on Venus Express

The upper atmosphere of a planet is a transition region in which energy is transferred between the deeper atmosphere and outer space. Molecular emissions from the upper atmosphere (90-120 km altitude) of Venus can be used to investigate the energetics and to trace the circulation of this hitherto little-studied region. Previous spacecraft and ground-based observations of infrared emission from CO2, O2 and NO have established that photochemical and dynamic activity controls the structure of the upper atmosphere of Venus. These data, however, have left unresolved the precise altitude of the emission owing to a lack of data and of an adequate observing geometry. Here we report measurements of day-side CO2 non-local thermodynamic equilibrium emission at 4.3 microm, extending from 90 to 120 km altitude, and of night-side O2 emission extending from 95 to 100 km. The CO2 emission peak occurs at approximately 115 km and varies with solar zenith angle over a range of approximately 10 km. This confirms previous modelling, and permits the beginning of a systematic study of the variability of the emission. The O2 peak emission happens at 96 km +/- 1 km, which is consistent with three-body recombination of oxygen atoms transported from the day side by a global thermospheric sub-solar to anti-solar circulation, as previously predicted.     

Discovery of an aurora on Mars

In the high-latitude regions of Earth, aurorae are the often-spectacular visual manifestation of the interaction between electrically charged particles (electrons, protons or ions) with the neutral upper atmosphere, as they precipitate along magnetic field lines. More generally, auroral emissions in planetary atmospheres "are those that result from the impact of particles other than photoelectrons" (ref. 1). Auroral activity has been found on all four giant planets possessing a magnetic field (Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune), as well as on Venus, which has no magnetic field. On the nightside of Venus, atomic O emissions at 130.4 nm and 135.6 nm appear in bright patches of varying sizes and intensities, which are believed to be produced by electrons with energy <300 eV (ref. 7). Here we report the discovery of an aurora in the martian atmosphere, using the ultraviolet spectrometer SPICAM on board Mars Express. It corresponds to a distinct type of aurora not seen before in the Solar System: it is unlike aurorae at Earth and the giant planets, which lie at the foot of the intrinsic magnetic field lines near the magnetic poles, and unlike venusian auroras, which are diffuse, sometimes spreading over the entire disk. Instead, the martian aurora is a highly concentrated and localized emission controlled by magnetic field anomalies in the martian crust.     

A warm layer in Venus' cryosphere and high-altitude measurements of HF, HCl, H2O and HDO

Venus has thick clouds of H2SO4 aerosol particles extending from altitudes of 40 to 60 km. The 60-100 km region (the mesosphere) is a transition region between the 4 day retrograde superrotation at the top of the thick clouds and the solar-antisolar circulation in the thermosphere (above 100 km), which has upwelling over the subsolar point and transport to the nightside. The mesosphere has a light haze of variable optical thickness, with CO, SO2, HCl, HF, H2O and HDO as the most important minor gaseous constituents, but the vertical distribution of the haze and molecules is poorly known because previous descent probes began their measurements at or below 60 km. Here we report the detection of an extensive layer of warm air at altitudes 90-120 km on the night side that we interpret as the result of adiabatic heating during air subsidence. Such a strong temperature inversion was not expected, because the night side of Venus was otherwise so cold that it was named the 'cryosphere' above 100 km. We also measured the mesospheric distributions of HF, HCl, H2O and HDO. HCl is less abundant than reported 40 years ago. HDO/H2O is enhanced by a factor of approximately 2.5 with respect to the lower atmosphere, and there is a general depletion of H2O around 80-90 km for which we have no explanation.     

有云条件下WRF模式中5种边界层参数化方案的比较研究

利用中尺度气象模式WRF中五种边界层参数化方案,对中国安徽寿县地区进行高分辨率的数值模拟,评估有云条件下边界层参数化方案对不同气象要素以及边界层结构的模拟能力。结果表明:两种非局地方案(ACM2、YSU)在云层存在的时间、云底高度、云底厚度方面模拟效果较好,局地方案模拟结果较差;对于向下短波辐射模拟,ACM2方案更接近观测值;对2 m温度和比湿模拟ACM2方案最好,而局地方案在风速和风向上存在优势;垂直结构方面,白天弱不稳定条件下,非局地方案考虑大涡输送更能表征位温廓线和湿度廓线,而风速和风向廓线的模拟,除了MYJ方案外,其它方案均能成功模拟,在夜间弱稳定条件下,5种方案都能模拟出弱不稳定层结、逆湿结构、急流等。     

Wave-like properties of solar supergranulation

Supergranulation on the surface of the Sun is a pattern of horizontal outflows, outlined by a network of small magnetic features, with a distinct scale of 30 million metres and an apparent lifetime of one day. It is generally believed that supergranulation corresponds to a preferred 'cellular' scale of thermal convection; rising magnetic fields are dragged by the outflows and concentrated into 'ropes' at the 'cell' boundaries. But as the convection zone is highly turbulent and stratified, numerical modelling has proved to be difficult and the dynamics remain poorly understood. Moreover, there is as yet no explanation for the observation that the pattern appears to rotate faster around the Sun than the magnetic features. Here we report observations showing that supergranulation undergoes oscillations and supports waves with periods of 6-9 days. The waves are predominantly prograde, which explains the apparent super-rotation of the pattern. The rotation of the plasma through which the pattern propagates is consistent with the motion of the magnetic network.     

基于图像分割的云层测速方法

为了解决塔式太阳能电站镜场上空的云层遮挡问题,提出一种对镜场上空移动云层进行预测的测速方法。首先利用固定摄像机对云层图像进行采集,然后提取不同帧数的图像,并进行伽马变换、遗传算法图像分割、云层目标检测、运动云层匹配等处理,最后根据匹配得到的像素坐标计算云层的移动速度和方向。实验测试结果表明:与光流法的数据进行比较,显示图像分割方法计算量少,位置预测误差小。可见运用图像分割方法进行云测速是可行的,为塔式太阳能电站的云监测中云遮挡预判提供理论依据。     

航空电子系统的云计算模型研究

云技术是提高分布式系统灵活性和扩展性的关键技术,在航空电子系统中引入云技术可以降低产品研发周期和成本,但首先需要设计符合机载环境需求的云模型。在分析商用云的服务模型结构基础上,结合行业内的相关标准,给出了一种新型航空电子云模型。建立了层次化的云模型架构,包括物理资源层、本地资源管理层、资源虚拟层、平台管理层和应用功能层;采用虚拟化技术建立资源虚拟模型,隔离软件APP与硬件资源和软件环境;分布式的数据动态发布与订阅,提高应用部署的灵活性;分布式资源管理,实现资源池管理、健康监控和故障管理;分布式存储模型,提供分布式数据和文件共享能力。遵循行业标准,为应用软件提供面向服务的航空电子云计算模型,对工程实践具有一定的指导意义。     

Non-detection at Venus of high-frequency radio signals characteristic of terrestrial lightning

The detection of impulsive low-frequency (10 to 80 kHz) radio signals, and separate very-low-frequency (approximately 100 Hz) radio 'whistler' signals provided the first evidence for lightning in the atmosphere of Venus. Later, a small number of impulsive high-frequency (100 kHz to 5.6 MHz) radio signals, possibly due to lightning, were also detected. The existence of lightning at Venus has, however, remained controversial. Here we report the results of a search for high-frequency (0.125 to 16 MHz) radio signals during two close fly-bys of Venus by the Cassini spacecraft. Such signals are characteristic of terrestrial lightning, and are commonly heard on AM (amplitude-modulated) radios during thunderstorms. Although the instrument easily detected signals from terrestrial lightning during a later fly-by of Earth (at a global flash rate estimated to be 70 s(-1), which is consistent with the rate expected for terrestrial lightning), no similar signals were detected from Venus. If lightning exists in the venusian atmosphere, it is either extremely rare, or very different from terrestrial lightning.     

The loss of ions from Venus through the plasma wake

Venus, unlike Earth, is an extremely dry planet although both began with similar masses, distances from the Sun, and presumably water inventories. The high deuterium-to-hydrogen ratio in the venusian atmosphere relative to Earth's also indicates that the atmosphere has undergone significantly different evolution over the age of the Solar System. Present-day thermal escape is low for all atmospheric species. However, hydrogen can escape by means of collisions with hot atoms from ionospheric photochemistry, and although the bulk of O and O2 are gravitationally bound, heavy ions have been observed to escape through interaction with the solar wind. Nevertheless, their relative rates of escape, spatial distribution, and composition could not be determined from these previous measurements. Here we report Venus Express measurements showing that the dominant escaping ions are O+, He+ and H+. The escaping ions leave Venus through the plasma sheet (a central portion of the plasma wake) and in a boundary layer of the induced magnetosphere. The escape rate ratios are Q(H+)/Q(O+) = 1.9; Q(He+)/Q(O+) = 0.07. The first of these implies that the escape of H+ and O+, together with the estimated escape of neutral hydrogen and oxygen, currently takes place near the stoichometric ratio corresponding to water.     

基于云理论的评估模型和方法

提出一种基于云理论的评估方法,首先利用程度分析法量化定性标度,并在此基础上建立评估标准的云模型.随后根据底层指标的实测值和专家评分计算云参数,并结合指标权重逐层向上进行云运算,得到评估样本的云参数.基于此生成大量样本点,代入评估标准的正向云发生器中计算确定度均值,作为最终评级的依据.相比之下,取评估样本期望计算确定度的方法没有考虑评估的不确定性,当评估不确定性较强时可能导致确定度的计算结果失真.最后以斜拉索耐久性评估为例,验证了方法的有效性和可操作性,为解决评估问题提供了一种更科学的手段.     

北冰洋春夏季海洋大气边界层特征的初步研究

采用 1998年北冰洋表面热量平衡 (SHEBA)试验的飞机探测资料 ,分析北冰洋春、夏季海洋大气边界层 (MABL)的特征。结果表明 :春季北冰洋MABL基本为近中性层结 ,夏季为弱稳定层结 ;春季边界层高度高于夏季。MABL垂直结构可分为近地层、云下混合层、云层和逆温层 ;MABL顶的层积云呈块状分布 ,云层内湍流输送活跃 ;通量输送水平不均匀 ,动量、感热通量多向下输送、潜热通量向上输送 ;春季湍流强度随高度呈现双峰型分布     

Stable sulphate clusters as a source of new atmospheric particles

The formation of new atmospheric particles with diameters of 3-10 nm has been observed at a variety of altitudes and locations. Such aerosol particles have the potential to grow into cloud condensation nuclei, thus affecting cloud formation as well as the global radiation budget. In some cases, the observed formation rates of new particles have been adequately explained by binary nucleation, involving water and sulphuric acid, but in certain locations--particularly those within the marine boundary layer and at continental sites--observed ambient nucleation rates exceed those predicted by the binary scheme. In these locations, ambient sulphuric acid (H2SO4) levels are typically lower than required for binary nucleation, but are sufficient for ternary nucleation (sulphuric acid-ammonia-water). Here we present results from an aerosol dynamics model with a ternary nucleation scheme which indicate that nucleation in the troposphere should be ubiquitous, and yield a reservoir of thermodynamically stable clusters 1-3 nm in size. We suggest that the growth of these clusters to a detectable size (> 3 nm particle diameter) is restricted by the availability of condensable vapour. Observations of atmospheric particle formation and growth from a continental and a coastal site support this hypothesis, indicating that a growth process including ternary nucleation is likely to be responsible for the formation of cloud condensation nuclei.